2006 News Release

1

Technical information:

Media contact:

(202) 691-7410
http://www.bls.gov/nls/
691-5902

USDL 06-1496
For release: 10:00 A.M. EDT
Friday, August 25, 2006

NUMBER OF JOBS HELD, LABOR MARKET ACTIVITY, AND
EARNINGS GROWTH AMONG THE YOUNGEST BABY BOOMERS:
RESULTS FROM A LONGITUDINAL SURVEY
The average person born in the later years of the baby boom held 10.5 jobs from age 18 to age 40,
according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the U.S. Department of Labor. Nearly three-fifths of these
jobs were held from ages 18 to 25.
These findings are from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, a survey of 9,964 men and
women who were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979 and ages 39 to 48 when interviewed most
recently in 2004-05. These respondents were born in the years 1957 to 1964, the later years of the “baby
boom” that occurred in the United States from 1946 to 1964. The survey spans a quarter century and provides information on work and nonwork experiences, training, schooling, income and assets, health conditions, and other characteristics. The information provided by respondents, who were interviewed annually
from 1979 to 1994 and biennially since 1994, can be considered representative of all men and women born
in the late 1950s and early 1960s and living in the United States when the survey began in 1979.
This release of the latest data from the longitudinal survey focuses on the number of jobs held, job duration, labor force participation, and earnings growth. Highlights from the survey include:
• Individuals born from 1957 to 1964 held an average of 10.5 jobs from ages 18 to 40. These baby
boomers held an average of 3.8 jobs while ages 18 to 21. The average fell to 3.0 jobs while ages 22
to 25 and to 2.0 jobs from ages 36 to 40. Jobs that span more than one age group were counted
once in each age group, so the overall average number of jobs held from age 18 to age 40 is less than
the sum of the number of jobs across the individual age groups.
• Although job duration tends to be longer the older a worker is when starting the job, these baby
boomers continued to have large numbers of short-duration jobs even as they approached middle age.
Among jobs started by workers when they were ages 36 to 40, 36 percent ended in less than a year
and 72 percent ended in fewer than 5 years.
• The average person was employed during 77 percent of the weeks from age 18 to age 40. Generally,
men spent a larger percent of weeks employed than did women (85 versus 70 percent). Women spent
much more time out of the labor force (26 percent of weeks) than did men (10 percent of weeks).

2

• The annual percent growth in inflation-adjusted hourly earnings was fastest when workers were in their
late teens and early twenties. Growth rates in earnings generally were higher for college graduates than
for workers with less education.
Number of Jobs Held
Individuals held an average of 10.5 jobs from ages 18 to 40, with the majority of the jobs being held before age 31. In this report, a job is defined as an uninterrupted period of work with a particular employer.
(See the Technical Note for additional information on the definition of a job.) On average, men held 10.7
jobs and women held 10.3 jobs from age 18 to age 40. Men held 3.9 jobs from age 18 to age 21 compared with 2.1 jobs from age 36 to age 40. The reduction in the average number of jobs held in successive
age groups was similar for women. (See table 1.)
On average, college-educated women held more jobs than women without a college degree and also held
more jobs than college-educated men. Women with a college degree held 11.2 jobs from ages 18 to 40 compared to 10.4 jobs for similarly educated men. Women with less than a high school diploma held an average
of 8.6 jobs. Men without a high school diploma held 12.0 jobs from ages 18 to 40, a higher average than
men or women with more education.
Differences in the number of jobs held also are apparent between race and ethnicity groups. From age
18 to age 40, whites held more jobs than either blacks or Hispanics or Latinos. The difference is most pronounced at younger ages. These differences in racial and ethnic groups disappeared at older ages; from ages
36 to 40, whites, blacks, and Hispanics or Latinos all held an average of about 2.0 jobs.
Duration of Employment Relationships
The length of time a worker remains with the same employer increases with the age at which the worker
began the job. Of the jobs that workers began when they were ages 18 to 21, 73 percent of those jobs
ended in less than a year and 95 percent ended in fewer than 5 years. Among jobs started by workers
when they were ages 36 to 40, 36 percent ended in less than a year and 72 percent ended in fewer than 5
years. (See table 2.)
Percent of Weeks Employed, Unemployed, and Not in the Labor Force
On average, the baby boomers represented by the survey sample were employed during 77 percent of
all the weeks occurring from age 18 to age 40. They were unemployed—that is, without jobs but actively
seeking work—5 percent of the weeks. They were not in the labor force—that is, neither working nor
seeking work—18 percent of the weeks. (See table 3.)
The amount of time spent employed differs substantially between educational-attainment groups, especially
among blacks and Hispanics or Latinos. Blacks with less than a high school diploma (as of the 2004-05 survey) spent 54 percent of weeks employed and 34 percent of weeks out of the labor force from age 18 to
age 40. By comparison, black high school graduates spent 67 percent of weeks employed and 23 percent
of weeks out of the labor force. Hispanic or Latino high school dropouts spent 60 percent of weeks employed compared with 72 percent of weeks for Hispanic or Latino high school graduates. White high school
dropouts spent 69 percent of weeks employed and white high school graduates spent 80 percent of weeks
employed. Among college graduates, there was little difference between racial and ethnic groups in labor
market attachment; each group spent 80 to 82 percent of weeks employed and 15 to 16 percent of weeks
out of the labor force.

3

The amount of time spent in the labor force also differs by sex, with women at every educational level
and at every age spending fewer weeks in the labor force than men. Men with less than a high school
diploma spent 77 percent of weeks employed from age 18 to age 40. These men also spent 9 percent of
weeks unemployed. By comparison, women with less than a high school diploma spent just 48 percent of
weeks employed and 6 percent of weeks unemployed from age 18 to age 40. Women without a high school
diploma spent nearly as much time out of the labor force (46 percent of weeks) as they did employed (48
percent of weeks). The differences between men and women in labor force attachment were much smaller
among those with a bachelor’s degree or more education, but men still spent a larger proportion of weeks
employed than did women (85 versus 78 percent).
Labor force attachment is related to age for both men and women, with the percent of weeks employed
increasing and the percent of weeks unemployed or not in the labor force falling as individuals grow older.
From ages 18 to 21, men spent 22 percent of weeks out of the labor force and women spent 34 percent of
weeks out of the labor force. This age range is a period when large proportions of men and women attend
college or receive vocational training and, as a result, they spend less time in the labor force than they eventually will. Indeed, from ages 36 to 40, these men spent only 6 percent of weeks out of the labor force and
women spent 21 percent of weeks out of the labor force. (See table 4.)
Like men, women were more likely to participate in the labor force as they aged, but the reduction in
the percent of weeks spent out of the labor force was much smaller among women than among men. After
age 21, women spent, on average, two and a half to four times as many weeks out of the labor force as men
of their same generation. Women in the age groups 22 to 25 and 26 to 30 each spent 26 percent of weeks
out of the labor force. Women ages 31 to 35 spent 24 percent of weeks out of the labor force and women
ages 36 to 40 spent 21 percent of weeks out of the labor force.
Percent Growth in Real Earnings
The inflation-adjusted earnings of workers increased most rapidly while they were young. Hourly earnings grew by an average of 6.3 percent per year from ages 18 to 21 and 6.5 percent per year from ages 22
to 25. The earnings growth rate slowed to 4.0 percent annually from age 26 to age 30, then to 3.6 percent
annually from age 31 to age 35. From ages 36 to 40, hourly earnings grew an average of 2.5 percent per
year. This pattern in earnings growth reflects, in part, the state of the U.S. economy during the years in which
survey participants were in each age group. For men and women in nearly every age category, growth rates
in inflation-adjusted hourly earnings generally were higher for workers with more education. (See table 5.)

Technical Note
The estimates in this release were obtained using data from
the first 21 rounds of the National Longitudinal Survey of
Youth 1979 (NLSY79). This survey is conducted by the Center
for Human Resource Research at The Ohio State University
and the National Opinion Research Center at the University of
Chicago under the direction and sponsorship of the U.S.
Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Sample
The NLSY79 is a nationally representative sample of 12,686
young men and women who were 14 to 22 years of age when
first surveyed in 1979. This survey sample was initially
composed of three subsamples:
• A cross-sectional sample of 6,111 youths that was
designed to represent the noninstitutionalized, civilian
population of young people living in the U.S. in 1979 and
born between January 1, 1957, and December 31, 1964
• A supplemental sample of 5,295 youths designed to
oversample noninstitutionalized, civilian black, Hispanic
or Latino, and economically disadvantaged nonblack,
non-Hispanic youths living in the U.S. in 1979 and born
between January 1, 1957, and December 31, 1964
• A military sample of 1,280 youths born between January 1,
1957, and December 31, 1961, and enlisted in the Army, Air
Force, Navy, or Marine Corps as of September 30, 1978
In 1985, the military sample was discontinued, and, in 1991,
the economically disadvantaged nonblack, non-Hispanic
youths were dropped from the supplemental sample. As a
result, the NLSY79 sample now includes 9,964 individuals from
the cross-sectional sample and the black and Hispanic or Latino
supplemental samples. (This sample size is not adjusted for
sample members who have died.)
Individuals were surveyed annually from 1979 to 1994 and
biennially since 1994. In 2004-05, 7,661 individuals responded
to the survey, for a retention rate of 77 percent. Only these
individuals are included in the estimates in this release. All
results are weighted using the 2004-05 survey weights that
correct for the oversampling, interview nonresponse, and
permanent attrition from the survey. When weighted, the
estimates represent all persons born in the years 1957 to 1964
and living in the U.S. when the survey began in 1979. Not
represented by the survey are U.S. immigrants who were born
from 1957 to 1964 and moved to the United States after 1979.
Work history data
The total number of jobs that people hold during their work
life is an easy concept to understand but a difficult one to
measure. Reliable estimates require a survey that interviews
the same people over the course of their entire work life and
also keeps track of all the jobs they ever held. The NLSY79
tracks the number of jobs that people have held, but the
respondents in this survey are still relatively young, ages 39

to 48 in 2004-05, and have many years of work life ahead of
them. As the cohort continues to age, however, more complete
information will become available.
A unique feature of the NLSY79 is that it collects the
beginning and ending dates of all jobs held by a respondent
so that a longitudinal history can be constructed of each
respondent’s work experiences. The NLSY79 work history data
provide a week-by-week work record of each respondent from
January 1, 1978, through the most recent survey date. These
data contain information on the respondent’s labor force status
each week, the usual hours worked per week at all jobs, and
earnings for all jobs. If a respondent worked at more than one
job in any week, hours and earnings are obtained for additional
jobs. When a respondent who missed one or more consecutive
survey rounds is interviewed again, he is asked to provide
information about all time since the last interview.
Interaction between time and age in a longitudinal
survey
Because the NLSY79 is a longitudinal survey, meaning the
same people are surveyed over time, the ages of the
respondents change with each survey round. It is important
to keep in mind this inherent link between the calendar years
and the ages of the respondents. For example, table 5 reports
earnings growth from age 22 to age 25. The youngest
respondents in the sample (birth year 1964) were these ages
during 1986-89, whereas the oldest respondents (birth year
1957) were these ages during 1979-82.
Although participants in the NLSY79 were ages 39 to 48
during the 2004-05 interviews, this release cover only the
period while the respondents were ages 18 to 40. The reason
for not including older ages is that the sample sizes were still
too small to provide statistically reliable estimates for age
groups older than 40. As the NLSY79 continues to be
administered and the respondents age, subsequent rounds of
the survey will enable analyses to be conducted for older age
groups.
As with age, the educational attainment of individuals may
change from year to year. In the tables and analysis presented
in this report, educational attainment is defined as of the 2004-05
survey. This definition is used even when data on age and
educational attainment are presented together. For example,
table 1 reports the number of jobs held during different age
categories. Suppose that a respondent had completed a
bachelor’s degree at age 28. That respondent would be
included in the “Bachelor’s degree and higher” educational
category in all age categories shown on the table, even though
he or she did not have a bachelor’s degree at any point from
age 18 to age 27.
Definitions
Job. A job is defined as an uninterrupted period of work
with a particular employer. Jobs are therefore employer-based,
not position-based. If a respondent indicates that he or she left

a job but in a subsequent survey returned to the same job, it
is counted as a new job. For example, if an individual worked
in a retail establishment during the summer, quit at the end of
summer to return to school, and then resumed working for the
same employer the following spring, this sequence would
count as two jobs, rather than one. For self-employed
workers, each “new” job is defined by the individuals
themselves.
Unemployment. If respondents indicate a gap between
employers, they are asked how many of those weeks they spent
searching for employment or on layoff. For that number of
weeks, they are considered unemployed. For the remaining
weeks, they are coded as not in the labor force. No probing
for intensity of job search is done.
Usual earnings. Respondents can report earnings over any
time frame (hour, day, week, month, year). For those who do
not report an hourly wage, one is constructed using usual
hours worked over that time frame. Wages greater than $100
per hour and less than $1 per hour were not included in the
analysis of earnings growth because the reported earnings
levels were almost certainly in error. For the same reason,

individuals who had inflation-adjusted earnings growth
greater than 100 percent were not included in the analysis.
These exclusions from the analysis affected 98 respondents.
Race and ethnicity groups. In this release, the findings are
reported for non-Hispanic whites, non-Hispanic blacks, and
Hispanics or Latinos. These three groups are mutually
exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are
included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because
their representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently
large to provide statistically reliable estimates. In other BLS
publications, estimates usually are published for whites,
blacks, and Hispanics or Latinos, but these groups are not
mutually exclusive. The terms “Hispanic or Latino” are
considered to be an ethnicity group, and Hispanics or Latinos
can be of any race. Most other BLS publications include
Hispanics or Latinos in the white and black race groups in
addition to the Hispanic or Latino ethnicity group.
Information in this release will be made available to sensory
impaired individuals upon request. Voice phone: 202-6915200; TDD message referral phone: 1-800-877-8339.

Table 1. Number of jobs held by individuals from age 18 to age 40 in 1978-2004 by educational attainment,
sex, race, Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, and age
Average number of jobs for persons ages 18 to 40 in 1978-2004
Characteristic
Total 1

Ages 18
to 21

Ages 22
to 25

Ages 26
to 30

Ages 31
to 35

Ages 36
to 40

Total …………...………....….……...….
Less than a high school diploma ……...
High school graduates, no college 2 ……
Some college or associate degree ………
Bachelor's degree and higher 3 ..………

10.5
10.6
10.2
10.9
10.7

3.8
3.3
3.6
3.9
4.1

3.0
2.8
2.8
3.0
3.5

2.8
2.8
2.7
2.9
2.9

2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.2

2.0
1.9
2.1
2.2
2.0

Men ………………....……...…...…...…
Less than a high school diploma ……...
High school graduates, no college 2 ……
Some college or associate degree ………
Bachelor's degree and higher 3 ..………

10.7
12.0
10.5
11.1
10.4

3.9
3.9
3.8
4.0
3.8

3.2
3.3
3.0
3.1
3.4

3.0
3.3
3.0
3.1
2.7

2.5
2.7
2.5
2.6
2.3

2.1
2.1
2.0
2.2
2.1

Women ………...…...…...…………..…
10.3
Less than a high school diploma ……...
8.6
High school graduates, no college 2 …… 9.8
Some college or associate degree ……… 10.7
Bachelor's degree and higher 3 ..……… 11.2

3.6
2.4
3.4
3.8
4.3

2.9
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.6

2.7
2.1
2.5
2.8
3.0

2.2
2.0
2.3
2.3
2.2

2.0
1.8
2.1
2.1
1.9

White non-Hispanic………………...……
Less than a high school diploma ……...
High school graduates, no college 2 ……
Some college or associate degree ………
Bachelor's degree and higher 3 ..………

10.6
11.3
10.1
11.1
10.7

3.9
3.5
3.8
4.1
4.1

3.1
3.0
2.8
3.1
3.5

2.8
2.9
2.7
3.0
2.8

2.3
2.5
2.4
2.4
2.2

2.0
2.0
2.0
2.1
1.9

Black non-Hispanic ..…...…...…….…...
Less than a high school diploma ……...
High school graduates, no college 2 ……
Some college or associate degree ………
Bachelor's degree and higher 3 ..………

10.1
9.2
10.3
10.0
10.5

3.0
2.3
3.0
3.2
3.6

2.7
2.4
2.6
2.7
3.4

2.8
2.7
2.8
2.8
3.1

2.4
2.2
2.5
2.5
2.6

2.1
1.9
2.1
2.2
2.2

Hispanic or Latino.......………………...…
Less than a high school diploma ……...
High school graduates, no college 2 ……
Some college or associate degree ………
Bachelor's degree and higher 3 ..………

10.0
9.8
10.0
10.1
10.4

3.4
3.3
3.1
3.6
3.6

2.7
2.5
2.6
2.9
3.1

2.7
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9

2.7
2.1
2.4
2.1
2.6

2.0
1.8
2.1
2.2
2.1

1

Jobs that were held in more than one of the age categories were counted in each appropriate column, but only once in the total column.
Includes persons with a high school diploma or equivalent.
3
Includes persons with a bachelor's, master's, professional, and doctoral degrees.
NOTE: This table excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned age 41 when interviewed in
2004-05.
The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and were ages 14 to 22
when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 39 to 48 in 2004-05. Educational attainment is defined as of the 2004-05 survey.
Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in the overall
totals, are not shown separately because their representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable
estimates.
2

Table 2. Duration of employment relationships with a single employer for all jobs started from age 18 to
age 40 in 1978-2004 by age at start of job, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity
Cumulative percent distribution of duration
of completed employment relationships
Less than 1
year

Less than 2
years

Less than 5
years

Less than 10
years

Less than 15
years

Percent of
jobs
ongoing in
2004

Ages 18 to 21 ………………

73.4

86.0

94.6

97.3

98.1

1.2

Men ………………………
Women ……………………

73.8
73.1

86.1
85.9

94.4
94.9

97.2
97.5

97.9
98.3

1.4
1.0

White non-Hispanic ………
Black non-Hispanic ………
Hispanic or Latino…………

73.1
75.7
72.5

86.0
87.3
84.7

94.6
95.0
94.2

97.3
97.7
97.5

98.1
98.3
98.3

1.2
1.2
1.0

Ages 22 to 25 ………………

62.1

77.9

90.0

94.7

96.3

3.2

Men ………………………
Women ……………………

61.8
62.4

77.6
78.1

89.0
91.2

93.9
95.7

95.7
96.9

3.8
2.5

White non-Hispanic ………
Black non-Hispanic ………
Hispanic or Latino ………

61.3
65.8
63.1

77.2
81.4
78.4

89.5
92.4
90.3

94.4
96.3
94.6

96.0
97.5
96.6

3.4
2.1
3.1

Ages 26 to 30 ………………

54.9

72.1

87.0

92.7

94.3

5.4

Men ………………………
Women ……………………

55.0
54.7

71.9
72.3

86.3
87.8

92.1
93.5

93.7
95.1

6.0
4.7

White non-Hispanic ………
Black non-Hispanic ………
Hispanic or Latino ………

53.6
59.7
57.2

70.9
77.1
74.7

86.2
89.8
88.4

92.3
94.2
93.7

94.0
95.3
95.1

5.7
4.6
4.8

Ages 31 to 35 ………………

47.0

64.1

82.1

88.4

89.0

11.0

Men ………………………
Women ……………………

46.0
48.1

63.2
65.1

81.3
83.0

87.5
89.3

88.2
89.8

11.8
10.2

White non-Hispanic ………
Black non-Hispanic ………
Hispanic or Latino ………

45.5
52.0
49.6

62.5
69.7
67.0

81.2
85.6
83.0

87.8
91.1
89.0

88.4
91.7
89.5

11.6
8.3
10.5

Ages 36 to 40 ………………

36.4

53.5

71.7

()

1

()

1

25.0

Men ………………………
Women ……………………

35.4
37.4

53.0
54.0

71.1
72.4

(1)
1
()

(1)
1
()

25.3
24.6

White non-Hispanic ………
Black non-Hispanic ………
Hispanic or Latino ………

35.4
40.0
38.3

52.1
58.8
55.0

70.5
76.1
75.0

(1)
(1)
1
()

(1)
(1)
1
()

26.2
20.8
21.7

Age at the start of job and
characteristic

1

Estimates are not presented for these categories because most sample members were not yet old enough at the time of the 2004-05
survey to have completed jobs of these durations.
NOTE: The age category of 18 to 21 excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978.
The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and were ages 14 to
22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 39 to 48 in 2004-05. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are
mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because their
representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable estimates.

Table 3. Percent of weeks individuals were employed, unemployed, or not in the labor force from age 18
to age 40 in 1978-2004 by educational attainment, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity
Percent of total weeks while ages 18 to 40 in 1978-2004
Characteristic
Employed

Unemployed

Not in labor force

Total, ages 18 to 40 in 1978-2004 ………………………
Less than a high school diploma ……...…..…....………
1
High school graduates, no college ……………………
Some college or associate degree ………………………
Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ..…………...……………

77.2
64.7
77.0
78.8
81.5

4.7
8.0
5.4
4.2
2.6

17.6
26.8
17.0
16.4
15.6

Men …………..…………..…….………...…….…………
Less than a high school diploma ……...…..…....………
High school graduates, no college 1 ……………………
Some college or associate degree ………………………
Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ..…………...……………

84.5
77.2
85.1
87.4
84.9

5.1
9.3
5.7
4.2
2.7

9.8
12.9
8.5
7.9
11.9

Women ………...…….…..…………..…….…………….
Less than a high school diploma ……...…..…....………
1
High school graduates, no college ……………………
Some college or associate degree ………………………
Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ..…………...……………

69.6
47.7
67.7
72.0
78.0

4.3
6.1
5.1
4.2
2.4

25.6
45.8
26.7
23.1
19.2

White non-Hispanic ………………………………………
Less than a high school diploma ……...…..…....………
High school graduates, no college 1 ……………………
Some college or associate degree ………………………
Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ..…………...……………

79.4
69.3
79.6
80.0
81.6

3.9
6.9
4.5
3.5
2.4

16.2
23.2
15.4
15.8
15.5

Black non-Hispanic ……………..…….……..……..……
Less than a high school diploma ……...…..…....………
High school graduates, no college 1 ……………………
Some college or associate degree ………………………
Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ..…………...……………

68.3
54.0
66.5
73.5
80.3

8.9
11.6
10.3
7.6
4.4

22.2
33.8
22.6
18.5
15.0

Hispanic or Latino .....…..…….…….……..…………..…
Less than a high school diploma ……...…..…....………
1
High school graduates, no college ……………………
Some college or associate degree ………………………
Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ..…………...……………

71.9
60.3
72.1
78.3
80.3

5.3
7.7
5.5
3.6
3.7

22.2
31.3
21.7
17.6
15.6

1

Includes persons with a high school diploma or equivalent.
Includes persons with a bachelor's, master's, professional, and doctoral degrees.
NOTE: This table excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned age 41 when interviewed
in 2004-05.
2

Totals do not add to 100 percent due to a small number of respondents whose employment status cannot be determined for all weeks.
The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and were ages 14 to
22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 39 to 48 in 2004-05. Educational attainment is defined as of the 2004-05
survey. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in
the overall totals, are not shown separately because their representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide statistically
reliable estimates.

Table 4. Percent of weeks individuals were employed, unemployed, or not in the labor force from
age 18 to age 40 in 1978-2004 by age, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity
Percent of total weeks
Age and characteristic
Employed

Unemployed

Not in labor force

77.2
62.9
75.0
79.1
80.9
83.1

4.7
8.9
6.5
4.1
3.3
2.7

17.6
27.7
18.0
16.3
15.3
13.8

Men, ages 18 to 40 in 1978-2004 ..….…………..……
Ages 18 to 21 in 1978-1986 2 ……….…………………
Ages 22 to 25 in 1979-1990 ………………………….
Ages 26 to 30 in 1983-1995 ……………………………
Ages 31 to 35 in 1988-2000 ……………………………
3
Ages 36 to 40 in 1993-2004 …………………………

84.5
67.5
81.9
88.2
89.3
90.3

5.1
10.0
7.5
4.6
3.6
2.8

9.8
21.9
10.1
6.6
6.6
6.4

1
Women, ages 18 to 40 in 1978-2004 …….…………..…
2
Ages 18 to 21 in 1978-1986 ……….…………………
Ages 22 to 25 in 1979-1990 ………………………….
Ages 26 to 30 in 1983-1995 ……………………………
Ages 31 to 35 in 1988-2000 ……………………………
Ages 36 to 40 in 1993-2004 3 …………………………

69.6
58.1
68.0
69.7
72.2
75.6

4.3
7.8
5.5
3.6
3.0
2.6

25.6
33.7
26.2
26.3
24.3
21.4

1
White non-Hispanic, ages 18 to 40 in 1978-2004 …….
2
Ages 18 to 21 in 1978-1986 ……….…………………
Ages 22 to 25 in 1979-1990 ………………………….
Ages 26 to 30 in 1983-1995 ……………………………
Ages 31 to 35 in 1988-2000 ……………………………
Ages 36 to 40 in 1993-2004 3 …………………………

79.4
65.8
77.5
81.2
82.8
84.5

3.9
7.8
5.6
3.3
2.7
2.1

16.2
25.8
16.5
15.0
14.1
13.0

1
Black non-Hispanic, ages 18 to 40 in 1978-2004 ………
2
Ages 18 to 21 in 1978-1986 ……….…………………
Ages 22 to 25 in 1979-1990 ………………………….
Ages 26 to 30 in 1983-1995 ……………………………
Ages 31 to 35 in 1988-2000 ……………………………
3
Ages 36 to 40 in 1993-2004 …………………………

68.3
49.6
65.3
70.5
73.3
76.9

8.9
14.9
11.5
8.3
6.6
5.5

22.2
35.1
22.8
20.6
19.5
17.2

71.9
58.4
68.7
72.7
75.9
79.2

5.3
9.3
7.2
4.7
3.9
3.7

22.2
31.8
23.6
21.9
19.5
16.5

Total, ages 18 to 40 in 1978-2004 1 ……………………
Ages 18 to 21 in 1978-1986 2 ……….…………………
Ages 22 to 25 in 1979-1990 ………………………….
Ages 26 to 30 in 1983-1995 ……………………………
Ages 31 to 35 in 1988-2000 ……………………………
Ages 36 to 40 in 1993-2004 3 …………………………
1

1

Hispanic or Latino, ages 18 to 40 in 1978-2004 ………
Ages 18 to 21 in 1978-1986 2 ……….…………………
Ages 22 to 25 in 1979-1990 ………………………….
Ages 26 to 30 in 1983-1995 ……………………………
Ages 31 to 35 in 1988-2000 ……………………………
Ages 36 to 40 in 1993-2004 3 …………………………
1

This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned age 41 when interviewed in
2004-05.
2
This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978.
3
This category excludes individuals who had not yet turned age 41 when interviewed in 2004-05.
NOTE: Totals do not add to 100 percent due to a small number of respondents whose employment status cannot be determined for all
weeks.
The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and were ages 14 to
22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 39 to 48 in 2004-05. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are
mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because their
representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable estimates.

Table 5. Average annual percent growth in inflation-adjusted hourly earnings from 1978-2004 by
educational attainment, sex, race, Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, and age
Average annual percent growth in hourly earnings
Characteristic

Ages 18
to 21

Ages 22
to 25

Ages 26
to 30

Ages 31
to 35

Ages 36
to 40

Total ……………….…….…...………..……
Less than a high school diploma ……...…..
High school graduates, no college 1 ………
Some college or associate degree …………
Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ..…………..

6.3
4.6
7.0
6.3
5.7

6.5
3.7
4.4
5.4
11.6

4.0
2.3
2.7
4.4
6.4

3.6
3.0
3.2
3.3
4.7

2.5
2.3
2.0
2.8
3.0

Men ………………...………………………
Less than a high school diploma ……...…..
High school graduates, no college 1 ………
Some college or associate degree …………
Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ..…………..

6.7
4.0
7.9
7.9
5.0

6.7
3.7
4.8
5.8
12.3

4.1
1.8
2.6
4.8
7.1

3.6
2.3
3.1
3.0
5.6

2.2
1.7
1.2
2.6
3.5

Women ………………...……………………
Less than a high school diploma ……...…..
High school graduates, no college 1 ………
Some college or associate degree …………
Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ..…………..

5.8
6.0
6.0
5.0
6.3

6.2
3.6
4.0
5.0
10.9

4.0
3.1
2.9
4.1
5.8

3.5
4.2
3.3
3.6
3.6

2.9
3.2
3.0
3.0
2.4

White non-Hispanic …..…….………………
Less than a high school diploma ……...…..
High school graduates, no college 1 ………
Some college or associate degree …………
Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ..…………..

6.5
4.8
7.2
6.6
5.9

6.7
4.2
4.5
5.4
11.5

4.2
2.2
2.7
4.7
6.4

3.6
3.1
3.3
3.1
4.7

2.5
2.3
2.0
2.9
2.9

Black non-Hispanic ………...………………
Less than a high school diploma ……...…..
High school graduates, no college 1 ………
Some college or associate degree …………
Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ..…………..

4.9
2.8
5.5
4.6
5.0

4.9
3.0
3.7
4.9
10.5

3.3
3.2
2.5
2.9
6.4

3.4
2.9
3.0
3.7
4.5

1.9
1.5
1.8
2.3
2.0

Hispanic or Latino…………..………………
Less than a high school diploma ……...…..
High school graduates, no college 1 ………
Some college or associate degree …………
Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ..…………..

6.7
6.0
7.1
6.9
6.1

5.6
2.6
4.2
6.1
13.2

3.3
1.1
2.7
4.5
6.0

3.5
2.6
2.7
4.8
4.4

2.6
2.5
1.9
2.6
4.7

1

Includes persons with a high school diploma or equivalent.
Includes persons with a bachelor's, master's, professional, and doctoral degrees.
NOTE: The first column excludes individuals who turned age 18 before 1978. The last column excludes individuals who were
not yet age 41 when interviewed in 2004-05.
The CPI-U-RS was used to adjust hourly earnings to 2004 dollars, prior to calculating the growth rates.
The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and were ages
14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were age 39 to 48 in 2004-05. Educational attainment is defined as of
the 2004-05 survey. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups,
which are included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because their representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently
large to provide statistically reliable estimates.
2