Gulf War Illnesses and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

Gulf War Illness and the Health
of Gulf War Veterans

Scientific Findings and Recommendations

Research Advisory Committee on
Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses

Gulf War Illness and the Health
of Gulf War Veterans

Scientific Findings and Recommendations

Research Advisory Committee on
Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses

Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses
Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans: Scientific Findings and Recommendations
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, November 2008

Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses

James H. Binns, Committee Chair
Carrolee Barlow, M.D., Ph.D.
Floyd E. Bloom, M.D.
Daniel J. Clauw, M.D.
Beatrice A. Golomb, M.D., Ph.D.
Joel C. Graves, D.Min.
Anthony Hardie
LTC Marguerite L. Knox, M.N., N.P.
William J. Meggs, M.D., Ph.D.
Mary Dekker Nettleman, M.D., M.S.
James P. O’Callaghan, Ph.D.
Steve Smithson
Lea Steele, Ph.D.
Roberta F. White, Ph.D.

Consultant to the Committee:
Jack Melling, Ph.D.

Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses
U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs
Washington, D.C.
website: www.va.gov/RAC-GWVI
Committee Staff Office:
Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses
Boston University School of Public Health
715 Albany Street (T-4W)
Boston, MA 02118
email: [email protected]

Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans
Table of Contents

Findings in Brief…………………………………………………………………………………..………………………...…

1

Executive Summary………….………………………………………………………………….…………………………...

3

Introduction………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………….….. 19

1| Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans…………………………………………... 23
Characteristics and impact of Gulf War illness: Epidemiologic research ………………………………….
– How many Gulf War veterans have Gulf War illness?.........................................................................
– Characteristics of Gulf War illness……………………………………………………………………………
– Which veterans are most affected by Gulf War illness?......................................................................
– Evaluating causal factors in Gulf War illness ….…………………………………………………………..

25
25
27
31
32

Gulf War illness prognosis and the need for treatments …………………….............................................
– Are veterans with Gulf War illness getting better or worse with time?.............................................
– The urgent need for effective treatments for Gulf War illness………………………………………….

36
36
36

Is there a unique Gulf War Syndrome?........................................................................................................

41

Other Gulf War health issues ………………………………………………………………………………………
– Diagnosed diseases affecting Gulf War veterans…..……………………………………………………..
– Mortality rates among Gulf War veterans…………….……………………………………………………..
– Hospitalization rates among Gulf War veterans…………………………………………………………...
– Birth defects and the health of Gulf War veterans’ family members…………………………………..

43
43
47
48
49

Special committee and government reports on the health of Gulf War veterans…………..…………….. 53
Recommendations……………………………………………………………………………………….…………… 56

2| What Caused Gulf War Illness? Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures.. 59
Psychological stressors and the health of Gulf War veterans.…………………….....................................
– Traumatic experiences and psychological stressors in the Gulf War………………………………….
– Health effects of psychological stressors…………………………………………………………………..
– Research on the health of Gulf War veterans in relation to psychological stressors……………....
– Recommendation………………………………………………………………………………………..............

61
62
63
66
74

Kuwaiti oil well fires and the health of Gulf War veterans…………………………………………………….
– Exposure to oil well fires and smoke during Gulf War deployment……………………………………
– Health effects of Kuwaiti oil fire-related exposures………………………………………………………
– Studies evaluating the health of Gulf War veterans in relation to the Kuwaiti oil fires…………….
– Recommendations………………………………………………………………………………………………

75
75
79
80
84

Depleted uranium and the health of Gulf War veterans…………………….................................................
– Depleted uranium exposure in the Gulf War………………………………………………………………..
– Health effects of DU exposure…………………………………………………………………………………
– Research on the health of Gulf War veterans in relation to DU exposure…………………………….
– Recommendations……………………………………………………………………………………………….

85
86
87
95
100

Table of Contents  i

Table of Contents

2| What Caused Gulf War Illness? Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures (cont.)
Vaccines and Gulf War illness…………..………………………………………………………………………….
– Vaccines given to Gulf War military personnel…………………………………………………………….
– Health effects of vaccines given to Gulf War troops……………………………………………………...
Anthrax vaccine…………………………………………….…………………….…………………………
Other vaccines given to Gulf War troops……..…………….………………………..…………….....
Vaccine adjuvants…………………………………………………………………………………………..
Health effects of receiving multiple vaccines…………………………………………………………
– Studies evaluating the health of Gulf War veterans in relation to vaccines…………………………..
– Recommendations……………………………………………………………………………………………….

101
101
105
106
114
115
120
122
127

Cholinergic and related neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine bromide, pesticides, and nerve agents…...
– Exposure to cholinergic and related neurotoxicants during the Gulf War….………………………...
Pyridostigmine bromide use in the Gulf War……………………………….………………….……...
Pesticide use and exposure in the Gulf War…….……………………………………………...….....
Exposure to chemical weapons in the Gulf War…..……….………………………..…………….....
– Health effects of cholinergic and related neurotoxicants……………………...………………………...
Health effects of pyridostigmine bromide……..…………………………….…………………………
Health effects of pesticides and insect repellants used in the Gulf War……………………...….
Health effects of low-level sarin exposure…….………………………….……………………….......
– Effects of combinations of Gulf War neurotoxicant exposures………………..…..…………………...
– Research on the health of Gulf War veterans in relation to cholinergic and related
neurotoxicants………………………………………………………………………….………………………...
The health of Gulf War veterans in relation to pyridostigmine bromide …..………………..…...
The health of Gulf War veterans in relation to pesticides…………….……………………….........
The health of Gulf War veterans in relation to chemical agents…..……………..……….…........
– Recommendations……………………………………………………………………………………………….

128
129
130
131
134
147
147
151
157
166

Infectious diseases in Gulf War veterans……….………………………………………………………………..
– Infectious disease in the Gulf War……………………………………………………………………………
– Evaluation of infectious diseases in Gulf War veterans since the war………………………………...
– Antibiotic treatment of Gulf War illness……………………………………………………………………..
– Biological warfare agents in the Gulf War…………………………………………………………………..
– Recommendations……………………………………………………………………………………………….

187
187
191
196
197
200

Other exposures in theater……………………………………………………………….....................................
– Sand and particulate exposures in the Gulf War…………………………………………………………..
– Exposure to combustion products from tent heaters………..…………………………………………...
– Organic solvents in the Gulf War …………………………………………………………………………….
– Jet fuel in relation to Gulf War illness………………………………………………………………………..
– CARC paint: Exposure to chemical agent resistant coating in the Gulf War…………………………
– Contaminated food and water in the Gulf War……………………………………………………………...
– Other potential hazards encountered by military personnel in the Gulf War………………………....
– Recommendations……………………………………………………………………………………………….

201
201
203
204
205
208
210
212
214

Synthesis: What the weight of evidence tells us about the causes of Gulf War illness…………….…..
– General patterns of exposure in the Gulf War…………………………………………………………..….
– General information on health effects of exposures……………………………………………….….….
– Evidence from studies of Gulf War veterans…………………………………………………………….….
– Overview of the evidence linking Gulf War illness with experiences and exposures during
Gulf War deployment……………….…………………………………………………………………………..
– Summary…………….…............................................................................................................................

215
216
218
220

ii  Table of Contents

177
178
180
181
186

224
227

Table of Contents

3| The Nature of Gulf War Illness………………………………………………………………………………. 229
Biological and clinical characteristics of Gulf War illness……….……………........................................... 230
– Brain and central nervous system alterations……………………………………..………………………. 232
Neuroimaging findings in Gulf War veterans…………………………………………………………. 233
Neurocognitive findings in Gulf War veterans…………………………….………………………….. 237
– Autonomic nervous system alterations in Gulf War veterans……………..……………………………. 243
– Neuromuscular and sensory findings in Gulf War veterans…………………………………………….. 246
– Neuroendocrine alterations…………..……………………………………………………………………….. 249
– Vulnerability to neurotoxicants: variation in genotype and activity of protective enzymes………. 250
– Immune parameters in Gulf War veterans………………………………………………………………….. 257
– Additional clinical and research findings associated with Gulf War illness…………………………. 262
– Future directions in identifying physiological mechanisms underlying Gulf War illness………..... 267
– Recommendations………………………………………………………………………………………….…… 273
Gulf War illness in relation to multisymptom conditions in the general population..……………………. 274
– Fatigue and chronic fatigue syndrome in Gulf War veterans…………………………………………… 275
– Chronic pain and fibromyalgia in Gulf War veterans……………………………………………………... 276
– Sensitivity to chemicals and multiple chemical sensitivity in Gulf War veterans…………………… 278
– Is Gulf War illness the same as multisymptom conditions found in the general population?….... 280
– Recommendations………………………………………………………………………………………………. 288

4| Federal Research on Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans…..……. 289
Historical funding and management of federal Gulf War research…………………….……………………. 290
Gulf War research at the Department of Veterans Affairs…………………………………………………….. 295
Gulf War research at the Department of Defense…………………………………………………………….… 300
Gulf War research at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention …………………………………..... 303
Additional VA programs relevant to Gulf War research……………………………………………………….. 303
Recommendations……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 309

5| Research Priorities and Recommendations………………………………………………………….. 311
Highest priority Gulf War research……………………………………….………………….……………………. 311
Other research areas of importance for addressing Gulf War health issues……………………………… 314
Guidelines for clinical and epidemiologic research on Gulf War veterans……….………………..……… 315

Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………………………………......................... 317

References……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……. 323

Table of Contents  iii

Table of Contents
Appendices
Appendix A| Association of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures with Chronic Symptoms

and Multisymptom Illness: Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans……………. 395

A-1.

CARC paint……………………………………………………………………………………………….... 397

A-2.

Chemical agents..……………………………………………………………………………………........ 399

A-3.

Contaminated food and water..……………………………………………………………………….... 403

A-4.

Depleted uranium..………………………………………………………………................................... 405

A-5.

Fuel exposures…….…………………………………………………………….................................... 407

A-6.

Oil well fires…….………………………………………………………………………………………..... 411

A-7.

Pesticides and insect repellants….……………………………………………………………………. 413

A-8.

Psychological stressors…………………..………………………………………………………….....

A-9.

Pyridostigmine bromide….…………………………………………………….................................... 423

A-10.

Sand….…………………………………………………………………………….................................... 427

A-11.

Solvents….…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 429

417

A-12a. Vaccines: Individual types….…………………………………………………................................... 431
A-12b. Vaccines: Number received……….………………………………………………………………..….

435

Appendix B| Charter of the Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses…... 437
Appendix C| Members of the Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’
Illnesses…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

441

Abbreviations and Acronyms…………..…………………………………………………………………………… 447

iv  Table of Contents

| Gulf War Illness and the Health
of Gulf War Veterans

Findings in Brief
Gulf War illness, the multisymptom condition resulting from service in the 1990-1991 Gulf War, is the
most prominent health issue affecting Gulf War veterans, but not the only one. The Congressionallymandated Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses has reviewed the extensive
evidence now available, including important findings from scientific research and government
investigations not considered by earlier panels, to determine what is known about the health consequences
of military service in the Gulf War. This evidence identifies the foremost causes of Gulf War illness,
describes biological characteristics of this condition, and provides direction for future research urgently
needed to improve the health of Gulf War veterans.
Gulf War illness is a serious condition that affects at least one fourth of the 697,000 U.S. veterans
who served in the 1990-1991 Gulf War. This complex of multiple concurrent symptoms typically

includes persistent memory and concentration problems, chronic headaches, widespread pain,
gastrointestinal problems, and other chronic abnormalities not explained by well-established
diagnoses. No effective treatments have been identified for Gulf War illness and studies indicate that
few veterans have recovered over time.
Gulf War illness fundamentally differs from trauma and stress-related syndromes described after
other wars. Studies consistently indicate that Gulf War illness is not the result of combat or other

stressors and that Gulf War veterans have lower rates of posttraumatic stress disorder than veterans of
other wars. No similar widespread, unexplained symptomatic illness has been identified in veterans
who have served in war zones since the Gulf War, including current Middle East deployments.
Evidence strongly and consistently indicates that two Gulf War neurotoxic exposures are causally
associated with Gulf War illness: 1) use of pyridostigmine bromide (PB) pills, given to protect
troops from effects of nerve agents, and 2) pesticide use during deployment. Evidence includes

the consistent association of Gulf War illness with PB and pesticides across studies of Gulf War
veterans, identified dose-response effects, and research findings in other populations and in animal
models.
For several Gulf War exposures, an association with Gulf War illness cannot be ruled out. These
include low-level exposure to nerve agents, close proximity to oil well fires, receipt of multiple
vaccines, and effects of combinations of Gulf War exposures. There is some evidence supporting

a possible association between these exposures and Gulf War illness, but that evidence is inconsistent
or limited in important ways.
Other wartime exposures are not likely to have caused Gulf War illness for the majority of ill
veterans. For remaining exposures, there is little evidence supporting an association with Gulf War

illness or a major role is unlikely based on what is known about exposure patterns during the Gulf War
and more recent deployments. These include depleted uranium, anthrax vaccine, fuels, solvents, sand
and particulates, infectious diseases, and chemical agent resistant coating (CARC).

Findings in Brief  1

Gulf War illness is associated with diverse biological alterations that most prominently affect the
brain and nervous system. Research findings in veterans with Gulf War illness include significant

differences in brain structure and function, autonomic nervous system function, neuroendocrine and
immune measures, and measures associated with vulnerability to neurotoxic chemicals. There is little
evidence of peripheral neuropathies in Gulf War veterans.
Gulf War illness has both similarities and differences with multisymptom conditions in the general
population. Symptom-defined conditions like chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, and multiple

chemical sensitivity occur at elevated rates in Gulf War veterans, but account for only a small
proportion of veterans with Gulf War illness.
Studies indicate that Gulf War veterans have significantly higher rates of amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis (ALS) than other veterans, and that Gulf War veterans potentially exposed to nerve
agents have died from brain cancer at elevated rates. Although these conditions have affected

relatively few veterans, they are cause for concern and require continued monitoring.
Important questions remain about other Gulf War health issues. These include questions about rates

of other neurological diseases, cancers, and diagnosed conditions in Gulf War veterans, current
information on overall and disease-specific mortality rates in Gulf War veterans, and unanswered
questions concerning the health of veterans’ children.
Federal Gulf War research programs have not been effective, historically, in addressing priority
issues related to Gulf War illness and the health of Gulf War veterans. Substantial federal Gulf

War research funding has been used for studies that have little or no relevance to the health of Gulf
War veterans, and for research on stress and psychiatric illness. Recent Congressional actions have
brought about promising new program developments at the Departments of Defense and Veterans
Affairs, but overall federal funding for Gulf War research has declined dramatically since 2001.
A renewed federal research commitment is needed to identify effective treatments for Gulf War
illness and address other priority Gulf War health issues. Adequate funding is required to achieve

the critical objectives of improving the health of Gulf War veterans and preventing similar problems in
future deployments. This is a national obligation, made especially urgent by the many years that Gulf
War veterans have waited for answers and assistance.

2  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

| Executive Summary
More than seventeen years have passed since the United States and its international allies liberated
Kuwait from the grip of Saddam Hussein’s Iraqi military forces in the 1990-1991 Gulf War. Despite the
swift and decisive victory achieved in Operation Desert Storm, at least one fourth of the nearly 700,000
U.S. military personnel who served in the war have experienced a complex of difficult and persistent
health problems since their return home. Illness profiles typically include some combination of chronic
headaches, cognitive difficulties, widespread pain, unexplained fatigue, chronic diarrhea, skin rashes,
respiratory problems, and other abnormalities. This symptom complex, now commonly referred to as
Gulf War illness, is not explained by routine medical evaluations or by psychiatric diagnoses, and has
persisted, for many veterans, for 17 years. While specific symptoms can vary between individuals, a
remarkably consistent illness profile has emerged from hundreds of reports and studies of different Gulf
War veteran populations from different regions of the U.S., and from allied countries.
For many years, diverse views about the cause or causes of Gulf war illness have been put forward and
vigorously debated. Hundreds of burning oil well fires that turned the Kuwaiti sky black with smoke,
dramatic reports of uranium-tipped munitions, sandstorms, secret vaccines, and frequent chemical alarms,
along with the government’s acknowledgment of nerve agent releases in theater, led many to believe that
veterans were suffering from effects of hazardous exposures that occurred during their deployment.
Government officials and special committee reports maintained that there was little evidence that this was
the case, and noted that veterans returning from other wars have often experienced chronic health
problems related to the stressful circumstances of serving in a war zone. All sides called for research to
better understand the problem. Multiple official investigations were launched and hundreds of research
studies funded.
In 1998, the U.S. Congress mandated the appointment of a public advisory panel of independent scientists
and veterans to advise on federal research studies and programs to address the health consequences of the
Gulf War. The Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses was appointed by the
Secretary of Veterans Affairs in 2002 and directed to evaluate the effectiveness of government research in
addressing central questions on the nature, causes, and treatments of Gulf War-related illnesses.
According to its charter, the guiding principle for the Committee’s work is the premise that the
fundamental goal of all Gulf War-related government research is to improve the health of Gulf War
veterans, and the choice and success of federal Gulf War research should be judged accordingly.
The Committee has convened public meetings on a regular basis to consider the broad spectrum of
scientific research, investigative reports, and government research activities related to the health of Gulf
War veterans. In addition to annual reports on Committee meetings and activities, it has periodically
issued formal scientific recommendations and reports. The Committee’s last extended report, Scientific
Progress in Understanding Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses, issued in 2004, provided findings and
recommendations on topics the Committee had considered up to that time. The present report provides a
comprehensive review of information and evidence on topics reviewed by the Committee since that time,
as well as additional information on topics considered in the 2004 report.
The central focus of this report is Gulf War illness, the multisymptom condition that affects veterans of
the 1990-1991 Gulf War at significantly elevated rates. Despite considerable government, scientific, and
media attention, little was clearly understood about Gulf War illness for many years. Now, 17 years after
the war, the extensive body of scientific research and government investigations that is currently available
provides the basis for an evidence-based assessment of the nature and causes of Gulf War illness. As

Executive Summary  3

described throughout the report, scientific evidence leaves no question that Gulf War illness is a real
condition with real causes and serious consequences for affected veterans. Research has also shown that
this pattern of illness does not occur after every war and cannot be attributed to psychological stressors
during the Gulf War.
Although Gulf War illness is the most prominent and widespread issue related to the health of Gulf War
veterans, it is not the only one. Additional issues of importance include diagnosed medical and
psychiatric conditions affecting Gulf War veterans, and questions related to the health of veterans’ family
members. Section 1 of this report provides an overview of information related to the prevalence and
characteristics of Gulf War illness, and other health issues, from the large body of Gulf War
epidemiologic research. Section 2 addresses evidence related to the causes of Gulf War illness, including
what has been learned about effects of psychological stressors, oil well fires, depleted uranium, and other
exposures of possible concern, and compares the weight of evidence related to each exposure as a cause
or contributor to Gulf War illness. Section 3 addresses the nature of Gulf War illness, reviewing research
on biological findings associated with Gulf War illness and its relationship with multisymptom conditions
found in the general population. Section 4 reviews research programs sponsored by federal agencies to
address Gulf War-related health issues. Research recommendations provided in relation to topics
considered in each section are summarized and prioritized in Section 5 of the report.
Gulf War research has posed a complex scientific challenge for researchers. Most obviously, Gulf War
illness does not fit neatly into well-established categories of disease. The underlying pathophysiology of
Gulf War illness is not apparent from routine clinical tests, and the illness appears not to be the result of a
single cause producing a well-known effect. There are relatively few sources of objectively measured
data for studying Gulf War illness or its association with events and exposures in the Gulf War. Some
observers have suggested that these complexities pose too difficult a challenge, and that it is unlikely that
the nature and causes of Gulf War illness can ever be known. On the contrary, the Committee has found
that the extensive scientific research and other diverse sources of information related to the health of Gulf
War veterans paint a cohesive picture that yields important answers to basic questions about both the
nature and causes of Gulf War illness. These, in turn, provide direction for future research that is urgently
needed to improve the health of Gulf War veterans.
Epidemiologic Research: What is Gulf War Illness and How Many Veterans Are Affected?
Gulf War illness refers to the complex of symptoms that affects veterans of the 1990-1991 Gulf War at
significantly excess rates. It is characterized by multiple diverse symptoms not explained by established
medical diagnoses or standard laboratory tests, symptoms that typically include a combination of memory
and concentration problems, persistent headache, unexplained fatigue, and widespread pain, and can also
include chronic digestive difficulties, respiratory symptoms, and skin rashes. A similar profile of excess
symptoms has been described in every study of U.S. Gulf War veterans from different regions and units,
and in Gulf War veterans from the United Kingdom and other allied countries.
Gulf War illness is not the only health condition related to Gulf War service, but it is by far the most
common. Gulf War illness prevalence estimates vary with the specific case definition used. Studies
consistently indicate, however, that an excess of 25 to 32 percent of veterans who served in the 19901991 Gulf War are affected by a complex of multiple symptoms, variously defined, over and above rates
in contemporary military personnel who did not deploy to the Gulf War. That means that between
175,000 and 210,000 of the nearly 700,000 U.S. veterans who served in the 1990-1991 Gulf War suffer
from this persistent pattern of symptoms as a result of their wartime service.
Research has not supported early speculation that Gulf War illness is a stress-related condition. Large
population-based studies of Gulf War veterans consistently indicate that Gulf War illness is not the result

4  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

of combat or other deployment stressors, and that rates of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other
psychiatric conditions are relatively low in Gulf War veterans. Gulf War illness differs fundamentally
from trauma and stress-related syndromes that have been described after other wars. No Gulf War
illness-type problem, that is, no widespread symptomatic illness not explained by medical or psychiatric
diagnoses, has been reported in veterans who served in Bosnia in the 1990s or in current conflicts in Iraq
and Afghanistan.
Epidemiologic studies indicate that rates of Gulf War illness vary in different subgroups of Gulf War
veterans. Gulf War illness affects veterans who served in the Army and Marines at higher rates than
those in the Navy and Air Force, and enlisted personnel more than officers. Studies also indicate that
Gulf War illness rates differ according to where veterans were located during deployment, with highest
rates among troops who served in forward areas. More specifically, studies consistently show that the
rate of Gulf War illness is associated with particular exposures that veterans encountered during
deployment.
Identified links between veteran-reported exposures and Gulf War illness have raised a great deal of
interest, but have also been the source of considerable confusion. The use of self-reported exposure
information raises a number of concerns, most obviously in relation to recall bias. These concerns
emphasize the importance of assessing findings across a broad spectrum of studies, rather than relying on
results from individual studies, and of evaluating the impact of recall and other information bias on study
results where possible.
The Committee identified an additional problem that has had a profound effect on epidemiologic study
results and their interpretation. Exposures assessed in Gulf War studies are highly correlated, that is,
veterans who had one type of exposure also usually had many others. In analyzing the effects of any
single exposure during the war, it is essential that effects of other exposures be considered and adjusted
for, to avoid the well-known problem of “confounding,” or confusing the effects of multiple exposures
with one another. Many Gulf War epidemiologic studies failed to control for confounding effects,
yielding illogical results that made it appear as if all, or nearly all, wartime exposures caused Gulf War
illness. In contrast, adjusted results—that is, those that controlled for effects of other exposures in
theater—consistently identified a very limited number of significant risk factors for Gulf War illness.
The Urgent Need for Effective Treatments for Gulf War Illness
Gulf War illness has persisted for a very long time for most ill veterans—over seventeen years for many.
Studies indicate that few veterans with Gulf War illness have recovered over time and only a small
minority have substantially improved. The federal Gulf War research effort has yet to provide tangible
results in achieving its ultimate objective, that is, to improve the health of Gulf War veterans. Few
treatments have been studied and none have been shown to provide significant benefit for a substantial
number of ill veterans.
Treatments that are effective in improving the health of veterans with Gulf War illness are urgently
needed. In recent years, Congressional actions have led to promising initiatives in this effort at both the
Department of Defense (DOD) and the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA). At DOD, the Office of
Congressionally Directed Medical Research Programs has developed an innovative program aimed at
identifying treatments and diagnostic tests for Gulf War illness. The program funded a limited number of
new treatment studies in 2007 and has invited proposals for additional studies to be funded in 2009. In
addition, VA has sponsored a center of excellence for Gulf War research at the University of Texas
Southwestern, focused on identifying specific biological abnormalities that underlie Gulf War illness that
can be targeted for treatment. Research to identify effective treatments for Gulf War illness has been
given highest priority by the Committee and requires expanded federal support.

Executive Summary  5

Other Health Issues Affecting Gulf War Veterans
Although Gulf War illness has been the most prominent health issue associated with military service in
the 1990-1991 Gulf War, a number of other health issues are extremely important. Studies have indicated
that veterans of the 1990-1991 Gulf War have developed amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) at twice the
rate of nondeployed veterans of the same era. Gulf War veterans who were downwind from nerve agent
releases resulting from weapons demolitions at Khamisiyah, Iraq, in March of 1991, have also been found
to have twice the rate of death due to brain cancer as other veterans in theater. Recent studies have
suggested that excess cases of ALS have declined in recent years, but the seriousness of both ALS and
brain cancer are clear causes for concern and require continued monitoring for the foreseeable future.
These findings also highlight the need for information on rates of other diagnosed diseases, particularly
neurological diseases and cancers, which have only minimally been assessed in Gulf War veterans.
Multiple studies have reported that rates of PTSD and other psychiatric disorders are higher in Gulf War
veterans than in nondeployed era veterans but are, overall, substantially lower than in veterans of other
wars.
Hospitalization and mortality studies have identified only limited differences between Gulf War and
nondeployed era veterans. Early U.S. mortality studies indicated that Gulf War veterans had higher death
rates due to accidents, and somewhat lower disease-related mortality rates. Although identified
differences appeared to diminish in the years after the war, the most recent year for which comprehensive
mortality information has been reported for U.S. Gulf War veterans is 1997. Given concerns about
diseases of longer latency, it is extremely important that current disease-specific mortality rates for U.S.
Gulf War veterans be made publicly available, and reported on a regular basis.
For many years, concerns have been raised about rates of birth defects in Gulf War veterans’ children and
anomalous health problems in their family members. Large population-based studies in the U.S. and the
U.K. have provided some evidence of excess rates of several types of birth defects among children born
to Gulf War veterans, in comparison to nondeployed era veterans. The specific types of birth defects
identified have differed in different studies, however, and rates, overall, have been in the normal range
expected in the general population. Phase III of VA’s large U.S. National Survey of Gulf War Era
Veterans and their Families included clinical evaluations of veterans’ spouses and children. On clinical
evaluation, no notable differences were identified between spouses of Gulf War and nondeployed
veterans. Findings from clinical evaluations of veterans’ children have not been reported from this study,
however. Further, no studies have provided comprehensive information on the health of Gulf War
veterans’ children, including rates of diagnosed conditions, symptomatic illness, and learning and
behavioral disorders.
What Caused Gulf War Illness? Review of Evidence Relating Gulf War Illness to
Experiences and Exposures During Deployment
In addition to the many physical and psychological challenges common to other wartime deployments,
military personnel who served in the 1990-1991 Gulf War were exposed to a long list of potentially
hazardous substances. Many possible “causes” of Gulf War illness have been suggested and even
promoted in different quarters since the war. Understanding the causes of Gulf War illness has been
particularly challenging because of the lack of hard data on individual exposures in theater. Efforts by
early government and scientific panels to address this issue were also limited by the sparsity of scientific
research information on the health of Gulf War veterans for the first 10 years after the war.
This is no longer the case today, as a result of the extensive number of government investigations and
scientific studies conducted to better understand events of the Gulf War and their association with Gulf
War illness. Government reports have provided important insights into the types and patterns of

6  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

exposures encountered by Gulf War military personnel. The large number of epidemiologic and clinical
studies of Gulf War veterans also allow assessment of associations between Gulf War experiences and
chronic health problems across a broad spectrum of veteran groups and research designs. In addition,
toxicological studies conducted in recent years have provided extensive information on biological effects
of Gulf War-related exposures that were previously unknown. The Committee found that epidemiologic
research on Gulf War veterans, assessed across diverse study designs and populations, provided clearer
and more consistent findings than had previously been assumed. When combined with what has been
learned about patterns of exposures in theater and findings from toxicological research, a coherent picture
emerges about the most likely causes of Gulf War illness.
The Committee used a standardized approach for evaluating available evidence related to psychological
stressors in theater and each of the other deployment-related hazards of possible concern. Three major
categories of evidence were considered. First, the Committee reviewed what is known about the extent
and patterns of veterans’ exposure to each potential hazard. Second, the Committee reviewed the broad
spectrum of available scientific research to determine what is known, in general, about health effects of
each exposure. This included consideration of epidemiologic and clinical studies of human populations,
and laboratory studies conducted in animal models. Third, the Committee reviewed, in detail, results
from the many studies of Gulf War veterans that assessed associations between symptom complexes and
the exposure in question.
Individually, single studies or types of information might suggest that a specific exposure could have
caused Gulf War illness. But it is important to consider evidence of all types and studies from all sources
to determine what the evidence most clearly indicates did cause Gulf War illness. Of the many
experiences and exposures associated with Gulf War service, studies of Gulf War veterans consistently
implicate only two wartime exposures as significant risk factors for Gulf War illness: use of
pyridostigmine bromide (PB) pills as a nerve agent protective measure, and use of pesticides during
deployment. This is consistent with what is known about the extent and patterns of these exposures in
theater, and with general information from other human and animal studies. Studies of Gulf War
veterans have also consistently indicated that psychological stressors during deployment are not
significantly associated with Gulf War illness. For several other deployment exposures an association
with Gulf War illness cannot be ruled out, due to inconsistencies or limitations of available information.
Remaining exposures appear unlikely, from available evidence, to have caused Gulf War illness for the
majority of affected veterans.
Psychological stress. Studies of Gulf War veterans consistently indicate that serving in combat and
other psychological stressors during the war are not significantly associated with Gulf War illness, after
adjusting for effects of other wartime exposures. Time-limited biological effects of psychological
stressors have long been described in human studies, and more extreme psychological stressors and
trauma can lead to chronic psychiatric disorders such as PTSD. Combat and extreme psychological
stressors were less widespread and less sustained in the Gulf War than in other wars, including current
Middle East deployments, and PTSD rates are lower in Gulf War veterans than in veterans of other wars.
Population-based studies generally indicate that between three and six percent of Gulf War veterans are
diagnosed with PTSD and that the large majority of veterans with Gulf War illness have no psychiatric
disorders. Serving in combat and other wartime stressors are associated with higher rates of PTSD in
Gulf War veterans, but not with higher rates of Gulf War illness.
Kuwaiti oil well fires. Widespread exposure to smoke from the Kuwaiti oil well fires was unique to
military service in the 1991 Gulf War, and most prominently affected ground troops in forward locations.
Epidemiologic findings relating oil well fire smoke exposure to Gulf War illness have been mixed,
although a dose-response effect has been identified by several studies. There is little information from
human or animal research to indicate whether intense exposure to petroleum smoke or vapors can lead to
persistent multisymptom illness. Although studies of Gulf War veterans do not provide consistent

Executive Summary  7

evidence that exposure to oil fire smoke is a risk factor for Gulf War illness for most veterans, questions
remain about effects for personnel located in close proximity to the burning wells for an extended period.
Limited findings from epidemiologic studies indicate that higher-level exposures to smoke from the
Kuwaiti oil well fires may be associated with increased rates of asthma in Gulf War veterans, and that an
association with Gulf War illness cannot be ruled out.
Depleted uranium (DU). Low-level exposure to spent DU munitions and dust is thought to have been
widespread during the Gulf War and was most prominent among ground troops in forward locations.
Recent animal studies have demonstrated acute effects of soluble forms of DU on the brain and behavior,
but persistent effects of short term, low-dose exposures like those encountered by the majority of Gulf
War veterans have only minimally been assessed. There is little information from Gulf War or other
human studies concerning chronic symptomatic illness in relation to DU or uranium exposure. Exposure
to DU in post-Gulf War deployments, including current conflicts in the Middle East, has not been
associated with widespread multisymptom illness. This suggests that exposure to DU munitions is not
likely a primary cause of Gulf War illness. Questions remain about long-term health effects of higherdose exposures to DU, however, particularly in relation to other health outcomes.
Vaccines. Receipt of multiple vaccines over a brief time period is a common feature of overseas
military deployments. About 150,000 Gulf War veterans are believed to have received one or two
anthrax shots, most commonly troops who were in fixed support locations during the war. Although
recent studies have demonstrated that the anthrax vaccine is highly reactogenic, there is no clear evidence
from Gulf War studies that links the anthrax vaccine to Gulf War illness. Taken together, limited findings
from Gulf War epidemiologic studies, the preferred administration to troops in support locations, and the
lack of widespread multisymptom illness resulting from current deployments, combine to indicate that the
anthrax vaccine is not a likely cause of Gulf War illness for most ill veterans. However, limited evidence
from both animal research and Gulf War epidemiologic studies indicates that an association between Gulf
War illness and receipt of a large number of vaccines cannot be ruled out.
Pyridostigmine bromide (PB). Widespread use of PB as a protective measure in the event of nerve
gas exposure was unique to the 1990-1991 Gulf War. Pyridostigmine bromide is one of only two
exposures consistently identified by Gulf War epidemiologic studies to be significantly associated with
Gulf War illness. About half of Gulf War personnel are believed to have taken PB tablets during
deployment, with greatest use among ground troops and those in forward locations. Several studies have
identified dose-response effects, indicating that veterans who took PB for longer periods of time have
higher illness rates than veterans who took less PB. In addition, clinical studies have identified
significant associations between PB use during the Gulf War and neurocognitive and neuroendocrine
alterations identified many years after the war. Taken together, these diverse types and sources of
evidence provide a consistent and persuasive case that use of PB during the Gulf War is causally
associated with Gulf War illness.
Pesticides. The widespread use of multiple types of pesticides and insect repellants in the Gulf War
theater is credited with keeping rates of pest-borne diseases low. Pesticide use, assessed in different
ways, is one of only two exposures consistently identified by Gulf War epidemiologic studies to be
significantly associated with Gulf War illness. Multisymptom illness profiles similar to Gulf War illness
have also been associated with low-level pesticide exposures in other human populations. In addition,
Gulf War studies have identified dose-response effects, indicating that greater pesticide use is more
strongly associated with Gulf War illness than more limited use. Pesticide use during the Gulf War has
also been associated with neurocognitive deficits and neuroendocrine alterations in Gulf War veterans in
clinical studies conducted many years after the war. Taken together, all available sources of evidence
combine to support a consistent and compelling case that pesticide use during the Gulf War is causally
associated with Gulf War illness.

8  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

Nerve agents. There have been no reports that U.S. forces encountered large-scale, high-dose
exposures to chemical weapons during the Gulf War, but concerns have emerged related to possible longterm effects of low-dose nerve agent exposures. Recent animal studies have identified brain, autonomic,
behavioral, neuroendocrine, and immune effects of low-level sarin exposure that were previously
unknown. Studies of individuals exposed to symptomatic but sublethal doses of sarin in Japanese
terrorist incidents in the 1990s have identified central nervous system effects that have persisted for many
years. The extent of low-level exposure to nerve agents during the Gulf War, however, is unclear.
Monitoring equipment used by U.S. forces had little capacity to detect nerve agents at levels that did not
cause immediate symptoms. The Department of Defense estimates that about 100,000 U.S. troops may
have been exposed to low levels of nerve agents following weapons demolitions in March of 1991 at
Khamisiyah, Iraq, but questions have been raised about the models used to determine who was exposed,
and at what levels. It is also unclear whether additional low-level exposures may have occurred in other
locations. Veterans’ self-reported experiences concerning low-level nerve agent exposure in the Gulf
War are particularly uncertain, and findings from epidemiologic studies linking chemical agents with Gulf
War illness are inconsistent. Studies of Gulf War veterans have identified increased rates of brain cancer
and measurable differences in brain structure and function that relate, in a dose-response manner, to
modeled nerve agent exposure levels resulting from the Khamisiyah demolitions. Findings from Gulf
War clinical studies, and from other human and animal research, suggest that an association between Gulf
War illness and low-level nerve agent exposure cannot be ruled out, for whatever subgroups of veterans
were exposed.
Infectious disease. A substantial proportion of Gulf War military personnel contracted acute
gastrointestinal and respiratory infections during deployment, but there is little information concerning
patterns of infection in theater and no evidence of widespread chronic illness resulting from those
infections. Atypical leishmania infections were identified in a limited number of veterans who served in
the 1990-1991 Gulf War, and a much larger number of leishmaniasis cases have been reported in
personnel serving in the current Iraq War. Several studies have identified DNA indicators of mycoplasma
infection in about 40 percent of symptomatic Gulf War veterans, but questions about testing methods
have not been adequately addressed. Taken together, there is little clear evidence implicating infectious
diseases as prominent causes of Gulf War illness. Questions remain, however, concerning the possibility
that some individuals with Gulf War illness have undetected chronic leishmania and mycoplasma
infections.
Other exposures in theater. A number of other potentially hazardous exposures in theater have been
suggested as causing or contributing to Gulf War illness. These include fine sand and airborne
particulates, exhaust from tent heaters, other fuel exposures, solvents, and freshly-applied CARC
(chemical agent resistant coating) paint. For most, there is limited evidence of the types considered for
other exposures. Available information, however, suggests that these exposures are not likely to have
caused Gulf War illness for most affected veterans. Epidemiologic studies have provided little clear
information linking any of these exposures to Gulf War illness and most were not most prevalent among
ground troops who were forward deployed. Some, like sand, solvents, and fuel exposures, have also been
widely encountered by personnel in current Middle East deployments. Information from human and
animal studies indicates that fuel and solvent exposures can have neurological effects compatible with
symptoms of Gulf War illness, but neither has been associated with Gulf War illness in studies of Gulf
War veterans.
Combinations of exposures. Compared to the diverse types of evidence available related to effects
of individual exposures, research on effects of combinations of Gulf War-related exposures is limited.
Gulf War studies consistently indicate that exposures in theater were highly correlated—that is, that
personnel most often experienced individual exposures in connection with multiple other exposures. This
includes correlations between use of PB and pesticides and among different types of pesticides. Animal
studies have identified significant effects of exposure to combinations of PB, pesticides and insect

Executive Summary  9

repellants, sarin, and stress, at dosage levels comparable to those experienced by veterans during the Gulf
War. Diverse findings have been reported in relation to chemical absorption, metabolism, and biological
effects of mixtures of neurotoxicants, which differ from those of individual exposures. There is little
information from human studies, however, including the many epidemiologic studies of Gulf War
veterans, concerning combined effects of Gulf War exposures.
A persuasive theoretical case can be made that exposure to mixtures of neurotoxic compounds in theater
are likely contributors to Gulf War illness. Such a case would draw on the consistency of evidence from
all sources indicating that both PB and pesticides are significantly associated with Gulf War illness, the
high correlation between troops’ use of PB and pesticides during deployment, and synergistic effects
between these exposures demonstrated by animal studies. Many of the pesticides used in the Gulf War,
as well as PB and nerve agents, exert toxic effects on the brain and nervous system by altering levels of
acetylcholine, an important nerve signaling chemical. Although such a case is compelling, little evidence
is available from studies of Gulf War veterans to indicate whether or not Gulf War illness is associated
with combinations of these exposures. This important possibility can and should be fully evaluated in
Gulf War studies. Pending such assessments, it is not possible to definitively determine the extent to
which mixtures of cholinergic and other neurotoxicant exposures during deployment contributed to Gulf
War illness. Based on evidence from toxicological research in animals and what is known about patterns
of exposures during the Gulf War, an association between Gulf War illness and combined effects of
neurotoxicant exposures cannot be ruled out.
There is almost no research to indicate if other wartime exposures interact synergistically with these
neurotoxic compounds or with one another. That is, the biological effects of different combinations of
PB, multiple pesticides, low-level nerve agents, oil and dense smoke from burning wells, DU dust, fuel
vapors, exhaust from tent heaters, CARC paint, airborne particulates, infectious agents, and receipt of
multiple vaccines, experienced concurrently or over a brief time period, are unknown. Many have
suggested that unknown and difficult-to-characterize effects may have been precipitated by an “exposure
cocktail” or “toxic soup” effect during Gulf War deployment. While such a theory is intriguing, there is
currently little evidence to indicate whether or not such effects actually occurred, and the extent to which
they may have contributed to Gulf War illness.
What the Weight of Evidence Tells Us About the Causes of Gulf War Illness
Seventeen years after the Gulf War, answers to the question of what caused Gulf War illness remain
vitally important. An extensive amount of available information now permits an evidence-based
assessment of the relationship of Gulf War illness to the many experiences and exposures encountered by
military personnel during the Gulf War. The strongest and most consistent evidence from Gulf War
epidemiologic studies indicates that use of pyridostigmine bromide (PB) pills and pesticides are
significant risk factors for Gulf War illness. The consistency of epidemiologic evidence linking these
exposures to Gulf War illness, identified dose-response effects, findings from Gulf War clinical studies,
additional research supporting biological plausibility, and the compatibility of these findings with known
patterns of exposure during deployment, combine to provide a persuasive case that use of PB pills and
pesticides during the 1990-1991 Gulf War are causally associated with Gulf War illness. Gulf War
studies also consistently indicate that psychological stressors during deployment are not significantly
associated with Gulf War illness.
Evidence related to other deployment-related exposures is not as abundant or consistent as evidence
related to PB, pesticides, and psychological stressors. For several wartime exposures, there is some
evidence supporting a possible association with Gulf War illness, but that evidence is inconsistent or
limited in important ways. Clinical studies of Gulf War veterans, studies of other populations exposed to
sarin, and findings from animal studies all suggest that low-level nerve agent exposure can produce

10  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

persistent neurological effects that may be compatible with symptoms of Gulf War illness. Therefore, an
association between Gulf War illness and low-level nerve agents cannot be ruled out for those veterans
who were exposed. However, inconsistencies in epidemiologic studies and unreliable exposure
information preclude a clear evaluation of the extent to which such exposures occurred and may have
contributed to Gulf War illness. Limited evidence from several sources also suggests that an association
with Gulf War illness cannot be ruled out in relation to combined effects of neurotoxicant exposures,
receipt of multiple vaccines, and exposure to the Kuwaiti oil fires, particularly for personnel in close
proximity to the burning wells for an extended period.
There is little reliable information from Gulf War studies concerning an association of DU or anthrax
vaccine to Gulf War illness. The prominence of both exposures in more recent deployments, in the
absence of widespread unexplained illness, suggests these exposures are unlikely to have been major
causes of Gulf War illness for the majority of affected veterans. Fine blowing sand, solvents, and fuel
exposures were also widely encountered in both the 1990-1991 Gulf War and in the current Iraq War and
results from studies of Gulf War veterans have not supported an association between these exposures and
Gulf War illness. All of the exposures described can be hazardous in some circumstances, however, and
some veterans may have experienced adverse effects on a more limited basis.
The Nature of Gulf War Illness: Biological and Clinical Findings in Gulf War Veterans
Although veterans’ symptoms are the most obvious and consistent indicators of Gulf War illness, dozens
of research studies conducted by multiple investigators have identified objective measures that
significantly distinguish veterans with Gulf War illness from healthy controls. Identified differences
relate to structure and function of the brain, function of the autonomic nervous system, neuroendocrine
and immune alterations, and variability in enzymes that protect the body from neurotoxic chemicals.
These findings provide indicators of diverse biological differences associated with Gulf War illness, but
have not, as yet, provided measures that can be used as diagnostic tests. While scientific progress has
been made in understanding the biological nature of Gulf War illness, important work remains in
characterizing the specific pathophysiological processes that underlie veterans’ symptoms. The
Committee reviewed the broad spectrum of studies that have evaluated biological and clinical parameters
in Gulf War veterans, focusing most specifically on Gulf War illness.
Identified effects on the brain and central nervous system. Multiple lines of research have
supported early indications that service in the Gulf War, for some veterans, resulted in long term effects
on the central nervous system. Population-based studies of Gulf War veterans have consistently
identified significantly excess rates of symptom complexes suggestive of central nervous system
abnormalities. Studies have also indicated that Gulf War veterans developed amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
(ALS) at twice the rate of nondeployed era veterans, and that veterans downwind from the Khamisiyah
munitions demolitions have died from brain cancer at twice the rate of other Gulf War veterans. Earlier
reports suggesting that Gulf War illness is not associated with neurological abnormalities generally
referred to the lack of significant findings identified with standard clinical evaluations and peripheral
nerve function testing. It is important to distinguish the lack of findings in these areas from the diverse
central nervous system effects identified using specialized brain imaging scans, neuropsychological
testing, and measures of balance and audiovestibular function.
Neuroimaging studies. Three research teams have identified significant differences between veterans
with Gulf War illness and controls using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) scans of the
brain. Findings indicate that symptomatic veterans have significantly reduced functioning brain cell mass
in the brainstem, basal ganglia, and hippocampus. Reduced neuronal function in the left basal ganglia
was correlated with increased central dopamine activity in one study. Symptomatic Gulf War veterans
have also been reported to exhibit alterations in overall and regional cerebral blood flow, using

Executive Summary  11

specialized SPECT scan analyses. In addition, a significant correlation has been reported between
reduced white matter volume in Gulf War veterans and levels of nerve agent exposures resulting from the
Khamisiyah weapons demolitions. Preliminary results from three unpublished federal Gulf War research
projects are also of great interest, and will be reviewed in final form as they become available. These
include early results from a larger MRS study that appear not to support earlier findings of reduced
neuronal function in the brainstem and basal ganglia of symptomatic Gulf War veterans. Preliminary
findings from an additional SPECT study suggest that symptomatic Gulf War veterans differ from healthy
controls in cerebral blood flow responses to cholinergic challenge. Early results from a third study
indicate that symptomatic Gulf War veterans have significantly reduced total white matter volume
compared to healthy controls. In contrast to the diverse findings reported from studies using specialized
brain imaging methods, few abnormalities have been identified in symptomatic veterans using
electroencephalograms (EEG), computed tomography (CT) scans, or standard magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) of the brain.
Overall, of the seven identified Gulf War research projects that evaluated brain structure and function
using proton MRS, specialized SPECT scans, and specialized MRI assessments, six have identified
significant differences between veterans with Gulf War illness and healthy controls, and one identified no
case/control differences. An additional study has identified significant brain volume differences in Gulf
War veterans in relation to modeled nerve agent exposures during the Gulf War. These findings have
been important in documenting brain alterations in Gulf War veterans, but have often come from
relatively small studies that assessed different types of abnormalities in different areas. Additional
research is needed to determine if these findings can be replicated and/or further extended in larger
samples.
Neuropsychological studies. Neuropsychological studies provide objective measures of brain function
and have been used for many years to quantify neurocognitive deficits resulting from chemical exposures.
They constitute the largest body of research on central nervous system function in Gulf War veterans. A
wide variety of specialized tests are used to assess cognitive domains that include attention, executive
system functioning, motor skills, visuospatial functioning, memory, and mood. Changes in affect and
emotional functioning can be symptoms of brain injury, and so are important to measure in
neuropsychological tests. But PTSD and other psychiatric conditions can themselves affect
neurocognitive function, and so must be appropriately controlled for when analyzing test outcomes.
Research studies have consistently identified significant differences in neurocognitive function between
symptomatic Gulf War veterans and healthy controls. These include differences on tests of attention and
executive system functioning, memory, visuospatial skills, psychomotor skills, and mood and emotional
functioning. Some studies indicate that symptomatic veterans display a slowing of response speed that
affects their mental flexibility across multiple cognitive domains. Identified differences have generally
been modest, but have consistently been significant and remained significant after adjustments for
emotional functioning and psychiatric disorders. Studies also indicate that many symptomatic veterans
who report cognitive difficulties do not have objectively measurable neurocognitive deficits. Two studies
have identified subgroups of symptomatic Gulf War veterans with more marked neurocognitive
impairment on measures of memory, attention, and response time, suggesting this subgroup should be the
focus of additional study.
Studies have also evaluated veterans’ neurocognitive function in relation to exposures during the Gulf
War. Significantly poorer performance on tests of memory, attention, and mood have been identified in
relation to self-reported exposure to pesticides, PB, and chemical weapons. Neurocognitive effects have
also been identified in relation to modeled nerve agent exposures resulting from the Khamisiyah weapons
demolitions. Department of Defense-modeled nerve agent exposure levels were significantly correlated
with slower performance on psychomotor and visuospatial tasks in a dose-response pattern—that is,
greater exposure was associated with worse neurocognitive performance.

12  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

Autonomic nervous system dysfunction. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the part of the
nervous system that regulates involuntary, or “automatic” physiological activities. Autonomic pathology
can be associated with diverse symptoms such as dizziness, weakness, digestive abnormalities, and sexual
dysfunction. Autonomic function is often assessed by determining effects of physiological challenges on
ANS regulation of heart rate and blood pressure. The Committee reviewed results from seven published
studies and two additional federal projects that assessed ANS function in symptomatic Gulf War veterans.
Eight of nine projects identified significant ANS differences between veterans with Gulf War illness and
healthy controls. Several studies demonstrated blunted autonomic responsivity to physiological
challenges, for example, reduced cardiovascular compensation in response to orthostatic challenge on tilt
table testing. Studies have also identified a general reduction in heart rate variability in the high
frequency range among veterans with Gulf War illness, observed over a 24-hour period in one study and
during nighttime hours in another. Although ANS differences have consistently been reported in veterans
with Gulf War illness, specific ANS alterations identified by different studies have varied, as a result of
differences in study characteristics and testing methods. Additional comprehensive research is needed to
provide a clear characterization of Gulf War illness-related autonomic dysfunction.
Neuromuscular and sensory findings. Symptoms reported by Gulf War veterans frequently
include muscle pain and weakness, or numbness and tingling sensations in the extremities. Such
symptoms potentially indicate abnormalities in peripheral nerve function related to sensation and motor
function. Nine studies have assessed peripheral sensory and neuromuscular function in Gulf War
veterans. Overall, based on standard clinical examination, electromyography, and nerve conduction tests,
these studies have provided little indication that veterans with Gulf War illness are affected by
generalized polyneuropathies or abnormal neuromuscular transmission. Three of four studies that
evaluated sensory threshold measures identified significantly higher (that is, less sensitive) thresholds in
symptomatic compared to healthy veterans, however. Two identified higher cold sensory thresholds, and
one reported a higher threshold for detecting light touch, suggesting that some Gulf War veterans may
have subtle small sensory fiber neuropathies. Consistent findings that Gulf War veterans are not affected
by more generalized polyneuropathies or neuromuscular abnormalities indicate that veterans’
neuromuscular symptoms are not attributable to overt muscle damage or peripheral nerve pathology.
Neuroendocrine alterations. A series of recent studies have provided detailed evaluation of
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis functioning in Gulf War veterans. Studies indicated that Gulf
War veterans are similar to nondeployed veterans on baseline measures of cortisol and ACTH
(adrenocorticotropic hormone), but had significantly greater suppression of both hormones in response to
dexamethasone challenge. These responses were significantly associated with veterans’ symptoms, most
prominently their musculoskeletal symptoms, but were unrelated to combat exposure or whether veterans
had PTSD. Cortisol suppression was most pronounced in veterans who reported using PB during
deployment. In addition, 24-hour ACTH levels were significantly reduced among Gulf War veterans who
did not have PTSD, and were associated with veterans’ use of pesticides and PB. No HPA alterations
were associated with combat stress, with other self-reported exposures during deployment, or with PTSD
in Gulf War veterans. Overall, these studies suggest that Gulf War service and symptoms of Gulf War
illness are associated with a unique profile of HPA alterations many years after the war, effects that differ
from HPA findings associated with other conditions, including PTSD. Identified effects were
independent of combat stress, but significantly associated with veterans’ use of PB and/or pesticides.
Vulnerability to neurotoxicants. A question often asked about Gulf War illness is why some Gulf
War military personnel developed chronic symptoms during and after deployment, while others who
served along side them remained well. It is well established that some people are more vulnerable to
adverse effects of certain chemicals than others, due to variability in biological processes that neutralize
those chemicals, and clear them from the body. The enzyme paraoxonase (PON1) circulates in the blood
and hydrolyzes organophosphate compounds such as pesticides and nerve agents, converting them to
relatively harmless chemicals that are then excreted. Individuals who produce different types and

Executive Summary  13

amounts of PON1 differ, sometimes dramatically, in their ability to neutralize different organophosphate
compounds. The Committee reviewed results from four published studies and two additional federal
projects that have assessed PON1 measures in Gulf War veterans. Five of the six projects identified
significant PON1 differences that were associated with Gulf War illness or, more generally, with Gulf
War service. Specific findings from these studies varied, however, reflecting different types of data that
addressed different research questions. Additional research is needed to better characterize the precise
nature of the PON1-Gulf War illness relationship. It is unknown if Gulf War illness is linked to
biological variability in other enzymes that protect the body from neurotoxic exposures. Limited and
preliminary information from three studies suggest a possible link between Gulf War illness and
butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) that may involve the subset of veterans who have very low BChE activity
and also experienced specific exposures during the war.
Immune parameters. There has been little indication that Gulf War service, overall, is associated with
increased rates of diagnosable immune conditions, including autoimmune diseases and allergies, or with
increased susceptibility to infectious disease. A well-known hypothesis, suggesting that Gulf War illness
is related to a systemic shift favoring Th-2 type immunity, has not been supported by studies of Gulf War
veterans. Veterans with Gulf War illness have been shown to differ from healthy controls on a number of
immune parameters, however. A variety of specific differences have been identified by individual
studies, and a number of consistent findings have emerged. Results from two studies, using different
methods in different groups of symptomatic veterans, indicate that Gulf War illness is associated with a
low-level, persistent immune activation, reflected in elevated levels of the cytokines IL-2, IFN-γ and IL10. Several studies have also reported that NK cell numbers and/or cytotoxic activity are significantly
reduced in veterans with Gulf War illness. A fuller understanding of immune function in ill Gulf War
veterans is needed, particularly in veteran subgroups with different clinical characteristics and exposure
histories.
Additional research and clinical findings in Gulf War veterans. Additional information
pertaining to biological and clinical characteristics of symptomatic Gulf War veterans is available from a
variety of clinical reports and studies. Individual clinical studies have provided several findings of
interest, such as increased sensitivity to pain and elevated rates of fibromyalgia in veterans with
musculoskeletal symptoms, dyspepsia and persistent diarrhea similar to irritable bowel syndrome in
veterans with gastrointestinal symptoms, abnormal pulmonary function in a subset of veterans with
respiratory symptoms, and verification of rashes and other skin anomalies in veterans with dermatological
symptoms. But overall, objective indicators of disease are often not identified in symptomatic Gulf War
veterans who are referred for specialty evaluations. Clinical reports have also not provided explanations
for identified problems, such as the causes of veterans’ persistent diarrhea or rashes. One study evaluated
Gulf War veteran males and their sexual partners who experienced a painful burning reaction to the
veterans’ seminal fluid, a problem reported by about seven percent of Gulf War veterans. Evaluations
indicated that about 40 percent of the women had a hypersensitivity reaction to the veterans’ seminal
fluid, but provided no explanation for the phenomenon, overall. In general, very limited information is
available on health problems specific to women veterans. Single studies have reported that Gulf War
veteran women report elevated rates of yeast and bladder infections and breast lumps or cysts, but no
results are available from medical evaluations.
Single studies have identified additional significant differences between symptomatic veterans and
controls on a number of specific laboratory tests. These include elevated rates of coagulation
abnormalities in symptomatic veterans, an elevated proportion of symptomatic veterans with
insertion/deletion polymorphisms in the gene encoding for angiotensin-converting enzyme, and
identification of atypical circulating polyribonucleotides potentially indicative of chromosome
alterations.

14  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

Future directions in identifying physiological mechanisms that underlie Gulf War illness.
To advance efforts to identify effective treatments and diagnostic tests for Gulf War illness, the
Committee has recently expanded its work to review areas of research that may contribute to a better
understanding of the specific pathophysiological mechanisms that underlie veterans’ symptoms. This has
included preliminary discussions in several areas, including biological processes associated with
neuroplasticity, disordered sensory processing and neuroendocrine dysregulation, and mitochondrial
insufficiency. The Committee has also reviewed, in greater detail, diverse scientific findings that suggest
a potential role for central nervous system inflammatory processes in the pathophysiology of Gulf War
illness, and has identified this as a promising area for future research. The research considered indicates
that neurotoxic Gulf War exposures may activate inflammatory processes in the brain and that increased
brain levels of proinflammatory cytokines can produce a complex of multiple symptoms similar to Gulf
War illness. Additional research suggests that these processes can become dysregulated by mechanisms
that include repeated cycles of brain cell injury and glial activation, as well as autonomic and
neuroendocrine disruption. Research in this area is especially warranted because of its possible clinical
implications. Imaging methods are available that can potentially identify these processes in the brain and
a variety of therapeutic agents are being studied for their effectiveness in treating dysregulated central
inflammatory processes.
Gulf War Illness in Relation to Other Multisymptom Conditions
Parallels are commonly drawn between Gulf War illness and symptom-defined conditions such as chronic
fatigue syndrome (CFS), fibromyalgia (FM), and multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS) found in the
general population. The prevalence of CFS in Gulf War veterans is unique, and dramatically higher than
CFS rates found in nondeployed veterans and in the general population. Rates of FM and MCS are also
elevated in Gulf War veterans, but to a lesser degree. It is clear from multiple studies, however, that case
definitions for CFS, FM, and MCS do not adequately describe the chronic symptom complex that affects
Gulf War veterans at excess rates, and that only a fraction of veterans with Gulf War illness can be
diagnosed with any of these conditions. Overall, research studies have identified both similarities and
differences between Gulf War illness and other multisymptom conditions. General similarities are
reflected in indicators of autonomic dysregulation and neurocognitive impairment in Gulf War illness,
FM, and CFS, and by indications that Gulf War illness and MCS are linked to PON1 variability. In
contrast, the epidemiologic profile of Gulf War illness significantly differs from multisymptom conditions
in the general population. Studies have also identified immune parameters and a number of other
measures that differ in veterans with Gulf War illness, compared to patients with CFS or FM. Many
objective measures associated with these conditions have not been evaluated in veterans with Gulf War
illness, however. Additional research in these areas can potentially provide useful insights into biological
mechanisms that underlie Gulf War illness and contribute to identifying beneficial treatments.
Federal Gulf War Research Programs
In addition to scientific studies and government reports, the Committee is charged with reviewing federal
research programs established to address health consequences of the 1991 Gulf War. Since 1994, the
U.S. government has reported expenditures of $340 million, over $440 million if indirect costs are
considered, for hundreds of studies identified as Gulf War research in interagency reports to Congress.
This research has been funded primarily by the Department of Defense (DOD) and the Department of
Veterans Affairs (VA). Many federally-funded studies have provided valuable insights regarding the
health of Gulf War veterans, as detailed throughout this report. But much of the federally funded research
has not advanced understanding of Gulf War illness or other Gulf War-related health problems.
Consequently, federal Gulf War research programs have not, as yet, succeeded in achieving the primary
objective of Gulf War research, that is, to improve the health of Gulf War veterans.

Executive Summary  15

The Committee identified major problems related to the historical use of research funds identified as
“Gulf War research” expenditures by federal agencies. Historically, the large majority of Gulf War
research funding was provided by DOD. In recent years, DOD has dramatically cut funding for projects
identified as Gulf War research from nearly $30 million annually in 2001 to under $5 million in 2006.
More troubling, many studies identified as “Gulf War research” at DOD over that period had little or no
relevance to Gulf War illness or the health of Gulf War veterans. The DOD “Gulf War” portfolio
consisted largely of costly projects that addressed broad questions related to current deployments and
other health issues unrelated to the Gulf War. By 2006, less than 10 percent of the $4.7 million identified
as DOD funding for “Gulf War research” supported studies that related to Gulf War illness or other health
problems associated with Gulf War service.
The Department of Veterans Affairs had historically funded a smaller proportion of federal Gulf War
research, but increased funding in recent years from a low of $4 million annually in 2002 to nearly $13
million in 2006. VA also historically identified a large number of studies as “Gulf War research” that had
little relevance to Gulf War health issues. Until 2004, this included substantial funding for research on
stress and psychiatric illness. By 2006, a larger number of studies had been funded that were related to
Gulf War illness and effects of Gulf War exposures. Still, the largest amount of funding in VA’s Gulf
War research portfolio, nearly 40 percent of the $13 million in 2006, supported projects focused on
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), few of which included Gulf War veterans or research issues related
to the development of ALS in Gulf War veterans.
A number of important changes have taken place in federal Gulf War research programs in recent years.
Beginning in 2006, Congressional actions brought about major changes in Gulf War research at both VA
and DOD. Congress allocated an additional $15 million annually for Gulf War research at VA, and
directed that it be used to support a center of excellence for Gulf War research at the University of Texas
Southwestern (UTSW) in Dallas. The VA/UTSW program is focused on identifying biological
abnormalities associated with Gulf War illness that can be targeted to develop diagnostic tests and
treatments. Congress also appropriated $5 million in 2006 and $10 million in 2008 to support an
innovative Gulf War research program managed by DOD’s Office of Congressionally Directed Medical
Research Programs. The new DOD Gulf War research program is focused on identifying treatments for
Gulf War illness and objective measures that distinguish ill from healthy veterans. Early indications
suggest that developments at both VA and DOD represent promising new directions in the federal Gulf
War research effort. The overall federal funding commitment for Gulf War research, however, remains
substantially below historical funding levels and far below that warranted by the scope of the problem.
Research Priorities and Recommendations
The Committee is charged with determining what has been learned about the nature, causes, and
treatments for Gulf War illness and advising on federal research, with the primary goal of improving the
health of Gulf War veterans. In reviewing information on the broad variety of topics related to the health
of Gulf War veterans, the Committee identified many scientific issues for which additional research was
needed. Specific research recommendations have been provided in relation to each topic considered, and
are compiled and prioritized in the final section of the report.
The Committee recommends that highest priority be given to research directed at identifying beneficial
treatments for Gulf War illness. This includes clinical studies that systematically evaluate the
effectiveness of currently available treatments, as well as research to identify specific pathophysiological
mechanisms associated with Gulf War illness that can be targeted for treatment. The Committee also
gives high priority to research aimed at identifying objective biological markers associated with Gulf War
illness, especially those that advance efforts to improve diagnostic testing. Recommended research
includes studies that expand on existing biological findings in Gulf War veterans—comprehensive

16  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

research on brain structure and function, autonomic function, neuroendocrine and immune alterations, and
processes associated with biological vulnerability to neurotoxicants—as well as studies that investigate
neuroinflammatory processes and utilize genomic and related technologies to identify biological
characteristics of Gulf War illness. Additional research priority areas include studies that characterize
effects of neurotoxic exposures associated with Gulf War illness, and epidemiologic studies to assess
rates of neurological diseases in Gulf War veterans.
The Committee identified additional areas of research needed to address other important Gulf War health
issues. These include epidemiologic studies to identify mortality and cancer rates in Gulf War veterans,
evaluation of health problems in veterans’ children, and improved characterization of Gulf War-related
health problems in relation to exposures in theater. Recommendations are also provided for improving
clinical and epidemiologic research on Gulf War veterans, and emphasize the importance of evaluating
outcomes in subgroups of Gulf War veterans identified by illness characteristics and exposures in theater.
The Committee recognizes the vital importance of Congressional support, agency commitment and
leadership, and adequate federal funding for achieving critical scientific objectives related to the health of
Gulf War veterans and preventing similar problems in future deployments. It therefore recommends that
the Administration request and that Congress allocate not less than $60 million annually in the federal
budget for Gulf War research, an amount commensurate with the scope of the problem, and compatible
with funding levels between 1999 and 2001. The Committee also recommends that this funding be
specifically directed to research most capable of improving the health of Gulf War veterans, as outlined in
this report.
Conclusions
Veterans of the 1990-1991 Gulf War had the distinction of serving their country in a military operation
that was a tremendous success, achieved in short order. But many had the misfortune of developing
lasting health consequences that were poorly understood and, for too long, denied or trivialized. The
extensive body of scientific research now available consistently indicates that Gulf War illness is real, that
it is the result of neurotoxic exposures during Gulf War deployment, and that few veterans have recovered
or substantially improved with time. Addressing the serious and persistent health problems affecting
175,000 Gulf War veterans remains the obligation of the federal government and all who are indebted to
the military men and women who risked their lives in Iraq, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia 17 years ago. This
obligation is made more urgent by the length of time Gulf War veterans have waited for answers and
assistance.

Executive Summary  17

18  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

|

Introduction

More than 17 years have passed since the Gulf War. The events and successes of Operation Desert Storm
are becoming a distant memory for some, with international attention now focused on current military
operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. But for too many who served in the Persian Gulf theater in 1990 and
1991, the Gulf War has had lasting consequences—health consequences beyond the well-recognized
effects of bullets and bombs and the psychological impact of war. This report describes what has been
learned in the last 17 years about the health effects of military service in the Gulf War and identifies
priority research issues that remain to be addressed. Although the report covers the broad spectrum of
health concerns related to Gulf War service, its primary focus is the multisymptom condition that has
come to be known as Gulf War illness. Over the years, this condition has been the foremost Gulf Warrelated health issue and the focus of intense political and scientific interest. It is also the condition for
which the largest numbers of Gulf War veterans are still seeking clear answers and effective treatments.
The Gulf War was unlike any war fought before or since. In the days following Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait
in August 1990, an international effort was swiftly mounted to stand up to the aggression of Saddam
Hussein’s forces. During Operation Desert Shield, hundreds of thousands of American troops, along with
military forces from the United Kingdom and dozens of other allied countries, established a strong
foothold in the region over the course of a few months. By mid-January, 1991, Operation Desert Storm
began with a massive air campaign. Six weeks later, on February 24, 1991, the ground offensive was
launched as U.S. and allied troops moved into Southern Iraq and Kuwait. In just three days the allies
achieved their primary objective, retaking Kuwait City as the Iraqis fled. The next day, just 100 hours
after the ground war had begun, a cease fire was established. Kuwait was free and the U.S. and its allies
had achieved a great victory in the desert.
The 1990-1991 Gulf War was an overwhelmingly successful campaign. Following the six-week air war
and four-day ground war, victorious troops were welcomed home and hailed as heroes in parades and
ceremonies across the nation. Just under 150 combat-related deaths occurred among the 700,000
Americans who deployed to the region, far fewer than had been anticipated before the war.1633,1813 The
military medical system established for the war had also performed impressively. Even with the quick
mobilization and harsh, unfamiliar desert environment, a record low number of troops required medical
attention during deployment.664,1595,1607 The Gulf War was unquestionably a unique war—for its brevity,
for the success with which it was executed, and for the decisive nature of the victory.
Yet, despite the successful staging and outcome of the Gulf War, military personnel who served in theater
reported persistent, baffling symptoms during deployment and in the months and years that followed their
return home. Reports indicated that Gulf War veterans who had served in different units, from all parts of
the U.S. and from allied countries were affected by similar types of symptoms. Illness profiles typically
included a complex of multiple symptoms not explained by conventional medical or psychiatric
diagnoses—cognitive difficulties, persistent and widespread pain, fatigue, headaches, chronic diarrhea
and other digestive abnormalities, and skin rashes. Just what these problems were and what had caused
them was unknown.
Over the years, Gulf War illness has posed diverse and difficult challenges for veterans who are ill and for
healthcare providers and research scientists working to address this condition. From the earliest time
veterans’ symptoms became known, they have been surrounded by controversy and
conjecture.31,210,283,409,536,1350 And for most of the decade that followed the Gulf War, relatively little was
understood about the nature and causes of Gulf War illness. Since the middle 1990s, Gulf War-related

Introduction  19

health problems have been the subject of numerous expert panel reports, U.S. and international
government investigations, and hundreds of scientific studies. As a result, an enormous amount of
information is now available on events and circumstances of the Gulf War and the health of Gulf War
veterans. These resources, when considered in aggregate, provide long-needed answers to questions
concerning Gulf War illness and provide a focus for the scientific research needed to effectively address
it.
The Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses. In 1998, with many
questions remaining about veterans’ unexplained health problems, Congress mandated the appointment of
an independent panel of scientists and veterans to review all federal research programs and available
evidence relating to the health of Gulf War veterans. In response to Section 104 of Public Law 105368,1243 the Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses was appointed in 2002 by
then Secretary of Veterans Affairs Anthony J. Principi. The Committee was charged with assessing the
effectiveness of the federal research effort in answering “central questions on the nature, causes, and
treatments for Gulf War-associated illnesses” (Appendix B) and with providing scientific
recommendations on federal research programs and studies.
Over the past six years, the Committee has had the privilege and responsibility of reviewing diverse types
of information on the many topics pertinent to the health of Gulf War veterans. A challenge common to
earlier government and expert panels was the sparsity of scientific information on which to base findings
and recommendations. In contrast, the Committee found that the quantity of currently available
information created a different kind of challenge, requiring a comprehensive review and cohesive
synthesis of a voluminous number of reports and studies. A complete picture of what is currently known
about the Gulf War and the health of Gulf War veterans was needed in order to make meaningful research
recommendations on the best way forward.
Since its inception, the Committee has conducted its work in public meetings, convened three times per
year. Due to the breadth of information to be considered, a systematic approach has been used in
reviewing each area of interest. For each topic considered, relevant materials have been reviewed by the
Committee, and scientists and government representatives with diverse expertise and perspectives have
been invited to present results of their investigations. The information presented typically addressed what
has been learned about particular exposures and events in theater and/or results of scientific studies
concerning health effects of those exposures. Committee meetings have functioned in large part as
symposia, providing opportunities for Committee members, visiting scientists, and government officials
to review and discuss available information on each topic, as well as opportunities for comments and
questions from members of the public.
In addition to annual reports on its activities and ongoing discourse with federal research officials, the
Committee has periodically issued recommendations and formal reports concerning topics it has
considered. An early “Interim Report” was issued in June, 2002, that provided the Committee’s
preliminary impressions and recommendations based on an initial overview of available research
information.1267 The Committee’s first extensive report was issued in the fall of 2004, providing detailed
information on topics considered to that time.1268 These included the scope of Gulf War illness and the
need for treatment research, evidence concerning effects of Gulf War-related neurotoxic exposures,
studies of birth defects in veterans’ children, and programmatic and funding issues related to federal
research on the health of Gulf War veterans. In January, 2006, the Committee provided updated
recommendations that outlined priority research objectives and topics to VA’s Office of Research and
Development.1270 Additional recommendations were provided to the Secretary in February, 2007,
concerning the need for updating Gulf War illness-related research and educational materials for VA
clinicians.1271 In 2008, the Committee reported its findings and recommendations concerning initial plans
and research activities at the VA-funded Gulf War Illness and Chemical Exposure Research Program at

20  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

the University of Texas Southwestern.1272 Committee members have also testified before Congress on
issues related to Gulf War illness research, including the need to identify effective treatments.
The present report summarizes information reviewed by the Committee since its last major report in 2004
and synthesizes all information considered by the Committee thus far. This synthesis forms the basis for
the scientific recommendations made in each area, and for identification of research priorities. In the
current report, as in all its activities, the Committee has been mindful of the guiding principle designated
for its work, as described in the Committee’s charter. It states that “the fundamental goal of Gulf Warrelated government research, either basic or applied, is to ultimately improve the health of ill Gulf War
veterans, and that the choice and success of research efforts shall be judged accordingly”(Appendix B).
The current report differs from earlier Gulf War panel and committee reports in several important
respects. First, the central focus of this report is Gulf War illness. The Committee reviewed available
information on all health issues associated with Gulf War service, but prioritized information relating to
the nature and causes of the undiagnosed, multisymptom illness affecting Gulf War veterans. Despite the
prominence of this condition in the lives of ill veterans and the amount of government and media
attention given to this problem, Gulf War illness has received surprisingly little in-depth consideration by
previous scientific panels. The present report is also distinct from earlier Gulf War reports because it
comes at a time when an unprecedented amount of information is available to inform the work and
conclusions of the Committee, information that was not available to earlier review panels and scientific
committees.
Lastly, this report is unique because of the specific charge and scope of activities assigned to the
Committee. This has enabled a single panel to consider the extensive range of topics related to the health
of Gulf War veterans. It has also required full consideration of the many types of scientific studies and
government reports relevant to veterans’ health and effects of veterans’ experiences and exposures during
the war. As a result, the Committee has had the opportunity to engage these complex issues in a more
comprehensive manner than previously has been possible. Most importantly, it has permitted the
Committee to synthesize diverse information from diverse sources in order to identify patterns and
inconsistencies across a broad spectrum. In effect, the Committee was given the opportunity to assemble
and evaluate all available pieces from a complex puzzle, and to determine what, collectively, they tell us
about the nature and causes of Gulf War illness.
It is regrettable that, 17 years after the war, so little clear information has emerged from scientific
committees that specifically addresses the nature and causes of Gulf War illness. It is perhaps
understandable, in light of the many complexities related to research in this area, as will be described
throughout this report. Most obviously, Gulf War illness does not fit neatly into our current concepts of
disease. The underlying pathobiology of Gulf War illness is not apparent from routine clinical tests, and
the illness appears not to be the result of a single cause producing a well-known effect. Researchers and
clinicians are generally not familiar with methods required to evaluate and address health problems
identified entirely by veterans’ symptoms. This might explain why Gulf War researchers and committees
have often focused their attention on problems that are more routinely assessed and measured. It has
become clear over the years, however, that the important questions surrounding Gulf War illness do not
have simple answers. Addressing these questions requires that complex issues be engaged in a complex
and comprehensive manner. Overly simplistic and compartmentalized approaches have provided little
progress.
The present report is divided into several sections that reflect different aspects of available information on
Gulf War-related health issues. The first section provides an overview of what has been learned from
population studies, the large body of epidemiologic research on Gulf War veterans. The second section
addresses the cause of Gulf War illness, reviewing what has been learned about the many Gulf Warrelated experiences and exposures that potentially contributed to veterans’ ill health—from the

Introduction  21

psychological stress of war to the effects of oil well fires, nerve agents, vaccines, and depleted uranium.
The third section addresses the nature of Gulf War illness, reviewing research on biological abnormalities
associated with veterans’ symptoms, the relationship of Gulf War illness with multisymptom conditions
in civilian populations, and topics the Committee has considered in exploring physiological mechanisms
that may underlie veterans’ symptoms. The fourth section summarizes the current status of federal
research programs related to the health of Gulf War veterans. Each of the first four sections includes
research recommendations related to the specific topics considered. The fifth section summarizes and
prioritizes these recommendations.
As is described throughout the report, there is no question that Gulf War illness is a real condition with
real causes and serious consequences for affected veterans. Study after study has consistently
documented this multisymptom condition in large numbers of Gulf War veterans. Research has also
shown that this pattern of illness does not occur after every war and cannot be attributed to psychological
stressors during the Gulf War. Because research studies have so compellingly demonstrated that Gulf
War illness cannot be explained simply as the expected result of wartime stress, it remains the
responsibility of the federal government to fully elaborate the source and nature of this condition, to care
for affected veterans, and to prevent similar problems from happening in the future.
Some have suggested that the many scientific and political challenges that have impeded understanding of
Gulf War illness are too complex, that the events of the war are too remote, and that answers to the many
questions surrounding Gulf War illness might never be known.870,1765 On the contrary, the Committee has
found that the diverse sources of information and research data associated with Gulf War service paint a
cohesive picture that yields important answers to basic questions about both the nature and causes of Gulf
War illness. These, in turn, provide direction for future research that is most capable of improving the
health of Gulf War veterans. Completing this mission, that is, finding answers and treatments for ill Gulf
War veterans, requires continued dedicated effort and cooperation between government officials,
scientists, clinicians, and veterans. As will be evident from the information and recommendations that
follow, the Committee believes that this is a challenge that can be met. It is also, unquestionably, an
obligation that must be met.

22  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

1| Gulf War Illness
and the Health of Gulf War Veterans
I arrived in Theater on January 6, 1991 … During official visits to strategic military cities there
were frequent SCUD attacks during which I heard chemical alarms sound. When I asked if
these alarms meant chemicals had been detected, I was told that the chemical alarms had
malfunctioned. I became ill and was treated for nausea, headaches, vomiting, diarrhea, and
high temperature. Rashes I had over my body I thought were normal and expected since I
spent most days in the sand, wind, and sun with all the attendant fleas, flies, and desert
parasites. Headaches I attributed to fatigue and lack of sleep. The symptoms…continued
after I returned home and got progressively worse.
--COL GR, Gulf War veteran1684

Unexplained illness in the wake of Desert Storm. In the years immediately following Desert
Storm, widespread reports indicated that Gulf War veterans were suffering from a complex of symptoms
that included memory problems, profound fatigue, chronic pain, persistent diarrhea, and unusual skin
lesions. Similar symptom complexes were widely reported by veterans from different units in different
parts of the U.S., and also by veterans from allied countries. Medical evaluations provided limited
insights, since veterans’ symptoms were typically not associated with abnormalities on laboratory tests or
other diagnostic measures. No clear explanation was apparent for this unexplained symptom complex,
labeled “Gulf War Syndrome” by the media.
Veterans and other observers soon raised questions about whether hazardous exposures encountered
during the Gulf War had made troops sick. Suggested causes included the billowing clouds of thick black
smoke produced by the Kuwaiti oil wells that were set afire by retreating Iraqi soldiers in the closing days
of the war. There were also widespread reports that alarms designed to detect chemical agents repeatedly
sounded in some areas of theater after Coalition air bombing began in January of 1991. Additional
concerns were raised about the use of measures that had never before been fielded by the military on a
widespread basis. These included use of munitions and armoring containing depleted uranium, use of an
anti-nerve agent prophylaxis regimen that included regular doses of the drug pyridostigmine bromide, and
administration of the anthrax and botulinum toxoid vaccines.
Since the mid-1990s, the federal government has funded hundreds of research studies to investigate the
health problems affecting Gulf War veterans.340 Multiple large epidemiologic studies and impressive data
collections have been conducted in diverse populations of Gulf War veterans. These studies have
provided extensive documentation of the symptoms and symptom complexes associated with Gulf War
service, rates of psychiatric conditions in Gulf War veterans, and limited data on the extent to which Gulf
War veterans have been affected by diagnosed medical diseases. Without exception, studies of Gulf War
veterans have found that the most prevalent health problem associated with Gulf War service is the
complex of multiple symptoms not explained by familiar medical or psychiatric diagnoses.
The condition once labeled “Gulf War Syndrome” by the media is now commonly referred to as Gulf
War veterans’ illnesses or Gulf War illness. The Committee has adopted the term Gulf War illness for
simplicity’s sake. It is used as an umbrella term to represent varying definitions and descriptions of the
complex of multiple symptoms found at significantly excess rates in Gulf War veterans. As with other
conditions, the specific symptoms affecting veterans with Gulf War illness can vary somewhat from
person to person. The overall consistency of the types of health problems described in Gulf War veterans,
however, indicates that it is most useful to consider this excess symptomatology as a cohesive “entity” to
Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans  23

be studied as a “multisymptom illness” as opposed to considering symptoms individually. This is the
approach adopted by most epidemiologic studies of Gulf War veterans. Use of the specific term, Gulf
War illness, also allows this multisymptom condition to be clearly distinguished from other, more
familiar, diagnosed conditions that affect individual veterans.
Although Gulf War illness is the most prominent condition affecting Gulf War veterans, it is just one
health issue to be addressed in the larger context of the health of Gulf War veterans. Other Gulf Warrelated health issues of importance include rates of diagnosable medical conditions and post-war mortality
among Gulf War veterans, and questions related to the risk of birth defects and other health problems in
veterans’ family members.

24  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

Characteristics and Impact of Gulf War Illness:
Epidemiologic Research
My symptoms began in the Gulf with severe abdominal cramping and severe diarrhea. I also
had terrible headaches and bouts of dizziness and tingling. Once I returned to the base in
Germany, the headaches persisted, and I experienced the cramps and diarrhea on a cyclic
basis. I also went through periods of night sweats. And there were periods when I would
sleep a lot because I was so fatigued. My joints were stiff, and my knees would swell after I
ran. It was harder for me to do things without feeling short of breath. These symptoms
became worse as time passed…
Ever since my return from the Gulf, I’ve been plagued by multiple rashes and lesions on my
face, neck, arms, and back. They come and go.
--SSgt BJ, Army Gulf War veteran716

Significant scientific progress has been made in characterizing the health of Gulf War veterans, as
described in the Committee’s 2004 report.1268 This progress has relied, in large part, on the many Gulf
War epidemiologic studies conducted in the past decade. Epidemiologic research uses established
methods to study patterns of disease and related factors in populations. Among the strengths of this
research approach is its capacity for providing “big picture” information about the health of populations
and statistical assessment of the relationship of health problems with demographic characteristics,
biological and chemical exposures, and other factors that can affect health. It is, in fact, the only
scientific approach capable of evaluating health problems in relation to the actual complex conditions of
the Gulf War. Consequently, epidemiologic research has been a particularly important resource for
understanding Gulf War illness and the health of Gulf War veterans.
The extensive body of Gulf War epidemiologic research has provided a consistent picture of the general
characteristics of Gulf War illness and the patterns in which it affects diverse groups of Gulf War
veterans. This research is not without limitations, however. It is important that findings from individual
population studies of Gulf War veterans be evaluated in the context of identified limitations, and also
considered in the context of the larger body of studies addressing similar questions and issues.
How many Gulf War veterans have Gulf War illness?
The prevalence of Gulf War illness reported by different studies has varied with how Gulf War illness or
“chronic multisymptom illness” (CMI) cases are defined. Because no specific Gulf War illness case
definition has been widely accepted, the Committee reviewed prevalence estimates from all studies
reporting rates of multisymptom illness, by any case definition, in both Gulf War veterans and
nondeployed Gulf War-era veterans. The burden of multisymptom illness attributable to service in the
Gulf War was determined by comparing rates found in Gulf War veterans to those in nondeployed era
veterans. The excess rate in Gulf War veterans, that is, the rate over and above that in veterans who did
not serve in the Gulf War, reflects the proportion of veterans whose multisymptom condition can be
attributed to participation in the Gulf War.
As shown in Table 1, nearly all epidemiologic studies have reported that, regardless of the case definition
used, an excess of 25 - 32 percent of Gulf War veterans have multisymptom illness related to service in
the Gulf War. The only exception comes from results reported from Phase III of the U.S. National
Survey of Gulf War Era Veterans and Their Families, which found only a 13 percent excess rate of
multisymptom illness in Gulf War veterans.142 It is not clear why the rate of excess illness from this study
was lower, by about half, than all other studies, including a later follow-up of veterans from the same U.S.

Characteristics and Impact of Gulf War Illness: Epidemiologic Research  25

Table 1. Prevalence of Multisymptom Illness in Gulf War Veterans
and Nondeployed Era Veterans
Number of Gulf
Year(s) of
War Veterans
Assessed
Assessment

Veterans Studied

Case Definition
Used

Prevalence In
Nondeployed
Veterans

Prevalence in
Gulf War
veterans

Excess Illness
in Gulf War
Veterans

Air Force veterans464

1,155

1995

CMI

15%

45%

30%

New England Army
veterans1238

180

1994-1996

CMI (modified)

33%

65%

32%

4,428

1998

CMI (modified)

36%

62%

26%

U.K. male veterans1698
U.K. female veterans

1699

226

1998

CMI (modified)

35%

64%

29%

1476

1,548

1998

GWI (KS)
CMI

8%
20%

34%
47%

26%
27%

U.S. national study,
Phase III142

1,035

1999-2001

CMI (modified)

16%

29%

13%

U.S. national study,
longitudinal sample745,748

5,767

2005

Multisymptom
illness*

10%

35%

25%

Kansas veterans

Abbreviations: CMI = chronic multisymptom illness as defined by Fukuda,464 Gulf War illness = Gulf War illness, KS = Kansas case definition1476
Notes: *Multisymptom illness defined as multiple types of symptoms occurring together, not explained by medical or psychiatric diagnoses

national study. Like other studies, the Phase III study relied on veterans’ self-reported symptoms to
assess rates of multisymptom illness.142 The difference potentially relates to modifications made in the
CMI definition, as adapted for the Phase III study. Those modifications, for example, limited the number
of Gulf War veterans identified as being fatigued, a central criterion of the CMI case definition, to about
half the expected total.142,751 The excess rate of 13 percent identified in the Phase III study is particularly
unexpected in light of a later study of a larger sample taken from the same population. The later study
found an excess of 25 percent of Gulf War veterans affected by multisymptom illness, similar to rates
reported by all other studies.745,748
A similar degree of excess ill health related to Gulf War service is suggested by studies that have assessed
veterans’ health using more general indicators. For example, half of Iowa Gulf War veterans, but only 14
percent of nondeployed era veterans, indicated they had health problems that they attributed to their
military service in 1990-1991, an excess of 36 percent in Gulf War veterans.350 Similarly, an excess of 35
percent of Kansas Gulf War veterans reported having health problems attributable to military service in
1990-1991.1476 A 2002 British study determined that 53 percent of Gulf War veterans fell into one of
four clusters defined by patterns of elevated symptom scores, compared to 28 percent of nondeployed era
veterans, an excess of 25 percent in Gulf War veterans.421 A more recent British study reported that 61
percent of Gulf War veterans, and 37 percent of nondeployed era veterans reported new health problems
since the Gulf War, an excess of 24 percent in Gulf War veterans.1411 Overall, these studies provide a
consistent indication that excess subjective ill health attributable to service in the Gulf War affects
between 24 and 36 percent of those who served.
Due to the consistency of estimates of the excess prevalence of multisymptom illness from diverse
studies, the Committee concludes that approximately 25 to 30 percent of veterans who served in the Gulf
War have been affected by Gulf War illness. That is, studies indicate that between 175,000 and 210,000
of the 700,000 American veterans of the 1990-1991 Gulf War are affected by a complex of multiple
symptoms attributable to their service in the war.

26  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

Characteristics of Gulf War Illness
Gulf War illness has been widely described in government testimony, media reports, and scientific
studies. The condition is typically characterized as a combination of diverse symptoms such as memory
problems, chronic headaches, widespread pain, unexplained fatigue, mood changes, persistent diarrhea,
respiratory problems and skin rashes. One of the major challenges of identifying, treating, and
understanding Gulf War illness is that ill veterans often have no abnormal findings on clinical diagnostic
tests. As a result, Gulf War illness is characterized on the basis of veterans’ symptoms that are, by
definition, self-reported. While this presents a number of difficulties in clinical practice, it is not an
impediment to assessing Gulf War illness in epidemiologic studies of large groups of veterans, where
general patterns of symptoms can be assessed and compared.
In research studies, Gulf War illness is routinely defined by the presence of multiple symptoms affecting
different systems. The majority of these symptoms fall into general categories, or domains, that have
often been characterized statistically in large studies. Symptom domains identified in broadly
representative populations of Gulf War veterans are summarized in Table 2. Despite the diverse methods
used to characterize symptoms, the categories of symptoms that affect Gulf War veterans at excess rates
are remarkably consistent across studies. The two symptom groups most commonly identified include
those indicative of neurological/cognitive problems (e.g., chronic headache, cognitive difficulties, mood
disturbances, vision and balance abnormalities) and symptoms of persistent, widespread pain in joints and
muscles. Symptoms related to persistent fatigue (e.g. extreme tiredness, sleep abnormalities) are reported
just as frequently, classified in different studies either as a specific symptom domain, or as part of the
neurological domain.
Two additional symptom groups are also consistently found at excess rates in Gulf War veterans, but are
typically reported by fewer veterans than neurological, pain, and fatigue symptoms. These include
respiratory symptoms (e.g. wheezing, coughing) and gastrointestinal problems (e.g. chronic diarrhea,
abdominal cramping). Skin symptoms (unexplained rashes and lesions) are also routinely reported, but
have usually not been assessed by multiple variables, as required for identifying symptom “groups.”
Factor analysis of symptoms. A number of Gulf War studies have defined symptom domains that
affect Gulf War veterans using factor analysis. This statistical technique is generally used as a data
reduction method in developing psychometric instruments or defining patient subgroups in studies of
identified medical or psychiatric conditions. Factor analysis identifies “latent” constructs, or factors, that
may underlie sets of highly correlated variables. When applied to general health symptoms in diverse
populations, the factor constructs typically reflect the correlation between symptoms resulting from
problems affecting particular organs or biological processes. These correlations tend to be independent of
the specific diseases causing those symptoms. For example, symptoms of coughing, wheezing, and
shortness of breath are highly correlated in any population, regardless of whether different individuals in
that population have pneumonia, emphysema, or colds.
With limited exception,752 the types of symptom domains identified in Gulf War studies by factor
analysis also occur in nondeployed veterans, and in diverse, nonveteran populations.1127,1341,1786,1830 This
would generally be expected, since factor-identified symptom “groupings,” in studies that assess general
health symptoms in heterogeneous populations, simply reflect the high correlation between symptoms
resulting from distress in a particular organ or biological process, regardless of the underlying disease.1082
What is unique to Gulf War veterans is that persistent symptoms occur concurrently in multiple domains
at excess rates, and with greater severity, than in nondeployed veterans.240,464,698,752,1395,1476 As described
in the Committee’s 2004 report, individual Gulf War veterans experience chronic symptoms in multiple
domains at the same time. If a unique pattern of Gulf War symptoms were to be identified using factor
analysis, it would likely require consideration of higher-order factors, that is, second or third-level factors
that reflect “groupings” of the symptom factors identified in both Gulf War and nondeployed veterans.1082
Characteristics and Impact of Gulf War Illness: Epidemiologic Research  27

Table 2. Symptom Domains Affecting Gulf War Veterans at Excess Rates
Symptom Domains Described
Gulf War Veterans Studied

Method Used to
Identify Domains

Neuro/
Cognition/ Muscle/ Respir- GastroMood
Joint Pain atory intestinal Fatigue

U.S. Veterans, All Branches
10,423 veterans in national survey752

Factor analysis

+

+

+

+

+

Correlation
analyses

+

+

+

+

+

1,161 veterans from 7 states*570

Factor analysis

+

+

+

+

±

867 veterans in Washington, Oregon*160

Factor analysis

+

+

+

±

±

1,896 Iowa veterans350

Factor analysis

±

+

9,588 U.K. veterans240

Factor analysis

+

+

+

+

±

3,454 U.K. veterans698,1125

Factor analysis

+

na

+

+

±

1,322 Australian veterans448

Factor analysis

+

+

±

+

±

1,548 Kansas veterans1476

±

Other Countries

Notes: + multiple symptoms of this type were significantly correlated in a defined domain
± multiple symptoms of this type were significantly elevated, but correlated with another defined domain
na the study did not assess multiple symptoms in this category
*
symptom domains assessed in Gulf War veterans only (no nondeployed comparison group)

Higher order analyses might indicate if symptoms in different domains are correlated with one another in
ways not typical of the general population.566,1082 Gulf War studies have thus far not compared higherorder factors of this type in Gulf War and nondeployed veterans. A unique pattern of symptom
expression in Gulf War veterans has been described in one study using a parallel approach, however. A
study of over 2,000 Kansas Gulf War era veterans characterized six different symptom domains that
affected Gulf War veterans at higher rates than nondeployed era veterans. A similar number of Gulf War
(30%) and nondeployed era veterans (29%) had symptoms in just one or two of the defined domains. In
contrast, a significantly higher proportion of Gulf War veterans (34%) than nondeployed era veterans
(8%) was affected by more severe symptomatology concurrently in three or more symptom domains.1476
Similarities between the types of symptoms that fall into factor-defined domains in Gulf War and
nondeployed veterans are sometimes cited as an indication that there is no “unique Gulf War
syndrome”.350,686,698,821 But a certain level of symptoms, ill health, and disease occur in any
population.840,1712 Symptom factors identified in diverse populations, including Gulf War veterans,
generally describe the symptoms expressed when problems affect particular biological systems, regardless
of their causes. Many investigators have pointed out that factor analysis has limited, if any, value in
determining whether there is or is not a unique Gulf War syndrome.429,668,821,1082,1395,1477 The Committee
found no examples in the scientific literature where factor analysis of health symptoms in a general
population sample, as typically used in Gulf War studies, has ever identified either a well-known chronic
disease, like diabetes, or a completely new syndrome.

28  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

Defining Gulf War illness. Several research teams have developed case definitions for use in their
investigations of the prevalence of and risk factors for Gulf War-related multisymptom illness. Generally,
case definitions that are nonspecific, that is, those based on a small number of common symptoms,
identify a relatively large number of “cases” among both Gulf War and nondeployed era veterans. More
restrictive case definitions, in terms of the types and severity of symptoms required, identify fewer cases.
Case definitions used to describe Gulf War illness and the methods for arriving at them have varied
between studies, as summarized below.
Haley syndromes. In 1997, Dr. Robert Haley and colleagues at the University of Texas Southwestern
Medical School defined three syndromes based on factor analysis of an extensive, detailed battery of
dichotomous and scaled symptoms in 249 members of the 24th Reserve Naval Mobile Construction
Battalion.565 Syndrome 1, labeled “impaired cognition,” included problems with attention, memory,
depression, and sleep abnormalities. Syndrome 2, labeled “confusion-ataxia,” was characterized by
problems with thinking and balance and was the most severe of the three syndromes. Syndrome 3,
labeled “arthro-myo-neuropathy” was associated with joint and muscle pain. Twenty percent of the
veterans in the study had one of more of the three defined syndromes.
Chronic multisymptom illness (CMI). In 1998, Dr. Keiji Fukuda and investigators from the U.S.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) defined a complex of symptoms, termed “chronic
multisymptom illness” in a population of 3,723 deployed and nondeployed Air Force Gulf War era
veterans.464 The symptom complex was defined using two parallel methods: one assessed symptoms that
affected more than 25 percent of Gulf War veterans, and the other used factor analyses of dichotomous
symptoms reported by both Gulf War and nondeployed veterans assessed together. The resulting CMI
definition required cases to report one or more symptoms lasting six months or longer in at least two of
three categories: fatigue, mood-cognition (feeling depressed, difficulty remembering or concentrating,
feeling moody, feeling anxious, trouble finding words, difficulty sleeping) and musculoskeletal pain (joint
pain, joint stiffness, muscle pain). Severe CMI cases rated each defining symptom as severe, other cases
were labeled “mild-to-moderate” CMI. As defined, the CMI symptom complex affected 45 percent of
Gulf War veterans in the Air Force sample, and 15 percent of nondeployed era veterans.
Oregon-defined Gulf War unexplained illness. In 1998, Dr. Peter Spencer and colleagues from the
Oregon Health Sciences University defined cases of Gulf War-related unexplained illness (GWUI) for
inclusion in a case control study.1465 GWUI cases were veterans who had at least one defining symptom
from any of three categories, but no diagnostic explanation for that symptom. The three categories
included unexplained symptoms associated with fatigue, cognitive/psychological problems, and
musculoskeletal complaints.
Kansas-defined Gulf War illness. In 2000, Dr. Lea Steele reported a case definition for Gulf War
illness, identified empirically as the pattern of symptoms that significantly distinguished 1,548 Gulf War
veterans from 482 nondeployed era veterans in the Kansas Gulf Veterans Health Study.1476 Kansasdefined Gulf War illness criteria excluded veterans diagnosed with specified medical or psychiatric
conditions that might explain their symptoms. Symptom criteria required that veterans report multiple or
moderately severe symptoms in at least three of six defined categories: fatigue/sleep problems, pain
symptoms, neurological/cognitive/mood symptoms, gastrointestinal symptoms, respiratory symptoms,
and skin symptoms. Gulf War illness, as defined in the Kansas study, affected 34 percent of Gulf War
veterans, and eight percent of nondeployed veterans.
U.S. National Survey-defined Gulf War syndrome. VA investigators identified a complex of four
neurological symptoms that constituted a unique factor in Gulf War veterans but not in nondeployed era
veterans in a large U.S. national sample.752 These symptoms included blurred vision, loss of balance,
tremors/shaking, and speech difficulty. Investigators reported that 277 (2%) of the over 10,000 Gulf War
veterans in the study were “cases” who endorsed all four symptoms. Cases were also significantly more

Characteristics and Impact of Gulf War Illness: Epidemiologic Research  29

likely to report a number of other symptoms and diagnosed conditions including migraines, seizures, and
diarrhea.
Other studies have distinguished ill from healthy veterans in ways that did not require veterans to report
specific symptoms. The 2002 Navy Seabee Health Study defined Gulf War illness “cases” as veterans
who reported being diagnosed with at least one of four conditions (chronic fatigue syndrome,
posttraumatic stress disorder, multiple chemical sensitivity, irritable bowel syndrome) and/or veterans
who reported having at least 12 health problems.527 Researchers evaluating a cohort of Army veterans
who returned from theater through Fort Devens, Massachusetts, have used several methods to classify
symptomatic veterans. In some studies of this cohort, veterans who reported having five or more frequent
symptoms from the Health System Checklist were identified as “high symptom” cases, and compared to
veterans with fewer symptoms.1802 An alternate approach relied on comparison of scores in nine defined
“body system” groups.1239 A separate study of veterans enrolled in VA’s Gulf War Registry also
distinguished “high symptom” and “low symptom” veteran subgroups, with categories defined
statistically using results of factor and cluster analyses.570 Studies have also used the chronic fatigue
syndrome case definition465 to distinguish symptomatic Gulf War veterans from controls.321,435,1090
Seventeen years after the Gulf War, no case definition has been widely accepted as the preferred standard
for defining the complex of multiple symptoms affecting Gulf War veterans, nor have there been
published efforts to optimize or validate a Gulf War illness case definition. The Fukuda CMI case
definition has been modified for use in several surveys and for two Gulf War illness clinical trials. That
definition is generally considered overly broad, that is, nonspecific for the health problems affecting Gulf
War veterans. The only case definition developed by characterizing a pattern of multiple symptom types
that differed between Gulf War and nondeployed era veterans is the Kansas case definition. In a random
sample of over 2,000 Kansas Gulf War era veterans, the Kansas definition more specifically distinguished
symptomatic Gulf War from nondeployed era veterans than the CMI case definition.1476
The severity and functional impact of Gulf War illness. Although not well characterized by any
research studies, anecdotal reports indicate that the severity of Gulf War illness is highly variable. Some
veterans are mildly or moderately affected by their symptoms, but still able to maintain many of their
usual activities. Others veterans have more severe, even disabling, illness. Different studies have shown
that between 13 and 50 percent who meet CMI criteria for Gulf War illness can be classified as “severe”
cases.142,464,1804 Illness severity is also said to vary for individuals, with symptoms waxing and waning
over time.
Several studies have evaluated the degree to which Gulf War illness has affected veterans’ functional
status, including their ability to work. The Medical Outcomes Study Short Form Survey (SF36),1753 and a
special SF36 developed for veteran populations,779 have been widely used in Gulf War studies. The SF36
evaluates functional status in eight defined areas (e.g., physical functioning, social functioning, general
health), providing a quantitative measure of health-related quality of life. Studies consistently report that
veterans meeting any case definition of Gulf War illness have significantly lower scores on all SF36
indicators than population norms and than healthy veterans.87,142,160,449,464,567,1542,1726 Veterans seen at
VA’s specialty referral clinics for multisymptom illness, the War Related Injury and Illness Study
Centers, exhibit considerable functional impairment. Those veterans’ mean score of 30 on the SF36
physical component scale (PCS) is substantially below the national average score of 50.907 In Gulf War
studies, SF36 scores vary with the case definition used and the domains assessed. The highly
symptomatic Gulf War veterans who meet defining criteria for the Haley syndromes had lower SF36
domain scores, indicating worse functional status, than scores for conditions such as congestive heart
failure and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.567 In contrast, veterans meeting the CMI case
definition in the U.S. national survey were considerably less functionally impaired, with a mean SF36
PCS score of 43.142

30  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

In general, studies indicate that most veterans with Gulf War illness continue to work, although this varies
with illness severity. A relatively high rate of unemployment (29%) was reported in Gulf War veterans
seeking treatment at a VA Gulf War illness clinic in Seattle.1281 More representative figures come from a
population-based study in the Pacific Northwest, where 21 percent of Gulf War veterans with two or more
unexplained health problems were unemployed, compared to 13 percent of veterans without symptoms.
Employed-but-symptomatic veterans were also more likely to miss at least seven days of work due to
illness over a one-year period (29%) than healthy veterans (4%).160
Which Veterans are Most Affected by Gulf War Illness?
Epidemiologic studies traditionally describe patterns of disease in populations. Insights about the causes
of a condition can often be drawn from identifying subgroups that are affected at higher and lower rates.
Studies of Gulf War illness have reported patterns of this type, identifying different rates of illness in
relation to the characteristics of veterans’ military service and deployment to the Gulf War theater.
Differences related to branch of service and military rank. Epidemiologic studies have
consistently indicated that Gulf War veterans who served in the Army and Marines have higher rates of
multisymptom illness than those in the Navy and Air Force.753,1466,1476 Similarly, Army veterans are
disproportionately represented in VA and DOD Gulf War Registry programs. That is, Army personnel
constituted just 50 percent of the deployed force, but account for 77 percent of Gulf War veterans enrolled
in registries. Conversely, Air Force and Navy veterans are significantly underrepresented in U.S. Gulf
War registries.1651
Studies also consistently report that enlisted personnel have higher rates of Gulf War illness than
officers.241,511,697,753,1124,1466,1476 Comparisons between reservists and active duty personnel have produced
mixed results, with some studies finding similar Gulf War illness rates in the two groups, and others
reporting somewhat higher rates in either active duty or reserve veterans.692,697,753,1466,1476,1804
Demographic characteristics. Rates of Gulf War illness have generally not differed markedly with
veterans’ demographic characteristics such as gender, age, and race. Gulf War illness affects women at
about the same, or slightly higher rates than men,142,160,240,464,753,1476,1699,1804 and younger veterans at about
the same rates as older veterans.511,753,1124,1476,1804 Whites and nonwhites are also affected at similar
rates.142,160,240,464,753,1466,1476,1699,1804
Location in theater. Several studies have reported that Gulf War illness rates differ with the locations
where veterans served during the war. That is, veterans who served in some areas of theater have higher
rates of Gulf War illness than veterans who were in other locations. The study of Kansas veterans
indicated that veterans who entered Iraq or Kuwait, countries where all battles took place, had
significantly higher rates of Gulf War illness (42%) than veterans who served exclusively in support areas
on land (32%) or on board ship during deployment (21%).1476 Similarly, U.S. and Canadian ground
troops had higher rates of multisymptom illness than those who served on board ship511,753 and Iowa
veterans who had been in Iraq, Kuwait, or Saudi Arabia had more health conditions than those located
elsewhere in theater.692
Two studies have reported increased illness risk in more narrowly defined locations. Navy Seabees
located in a specific sector of northeastern Saudi Arabia on the third day of the air war had over four
times the rate of Gulf War illness as veterans in other areas, suggesting a link with a particular event or
exposure in that location.564 A more recent report, using troop location data and geographical information
system (GIS) methods, identified several localized spatial clusters where veterans with severe Gulf War
illness were more likely to have been located at certain time periods.1236 Taken together, these studies

Characteristics and Impact of Gulf War Illness: Epidemiologic Research  31

indicate that Gulf War illness did not randomly affect all Gulf War veterans who deployed to the region,
but occurred as a result of events, experiences, or exposures that differed by location.
In fact, epidemiologic studies have consistently found that Gulf War illness rates do vary significantly
according to veteran-reported experiences and exposures during the war. Observed associations between
Gulf War illness and veterans’ exposures have raised a great deal of interest, but have also been the
source of considerable confusion. Research related to illness-exposure associations will be considered
throughout this report, and analyzed in detail in Section 2. It is important that it be considered in the
larger context of limitations inherent in the use of self-reported data, as well as other methodological
issues affecting studies of Gulf War veterans.
Evaluating Causal Factors in Gulf War Illness
Limitations and shortcomings of Gulf War epidemiologic research. A great deal has been
learned from the many epidemiologic studies conducted in different populations of Gulf War veterans.
But like all areas of scientific investigation, epidemiologic research has limitations, some of which are
especially problematic in Gulf War studies. In addition to issues that are specific to Gulf War research,
broader issues such as shortcomings in how research questions have been posed or how studies have been
designed and executed have also greatly affected the degree to which Gulf War epidemiologic studies
have been useful and informative. Therefore, it is essential that research limitations be identified and
carefully considered when interpreting results of Gulf War epidemiologic studies.
Research on the health of Gulf War veterans is unusually complex and challenging for a number of
reasons. Relatively little objectively measured information is available on either the primary health
outcome of interest—Gulf War illness—or on potential causal factors assessed in epidemiologic studies.
Gulf War illness is generally identified on the basis of veterans’ symptoms which are, by definition, selfreported. In addition, wartime events and exposures have most often been assessed using veterans’ own
reports of what they experienced during deployment. Although not generally an optimal data resource, it
is the only option available for many Gulf War exposures of interest.
To add to these complexities, both the primary health outcome of interest—Gulf War illness—and the
etiologic factors being investigated are multifactorial. That is, Gulf War illness encompasses multiple
symptoms that co-occur in different ways. Likewise, the Gulf War experience included a wide array of
potentially hazardous and stressful exposures. Even under the best circumstances, understanding
relationships between multifaceted exposures and multifaceted health outcomes can be a complex
challenge.
Such issues, particular to studies of Gulf War illness, must also be considered in the context of limitations
and problems more generally associated with epidemiologic research. Typical issues relate to biases that
can result from the size and characteristics of the study sample, the response rate, identification of suitable
comparison groups, the content and wording of questions, methods used to assess outcomes, and
statistical problems stemming from multiple comparisons. These issues are well recognized and have
been discussed at length in reviews and committee reports on the health of Gulf War veterans.104,646,686
An additional concern that has received less attention, but one that can have serious consequences, relates
to methods used in analyzing and reporting the data collected in Gulf War studies. The present discussion
focuses on sources of error in epidemiologic studies that have had the greatest impact on research
findings, and interpretation of findings, in studies of Gulf War veterans.
Some reports have suggested that, given the limitations associated with studies of Gulf War veterans and
the lack of data on measured exposures in theater, little useful information can be obtained from
epidemiologic studies for understanding Gulf War illness and its relationship to exposures.79,667,686

32  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

But after reviewing results from the many Gulf War epidemiologic studies and carefully considering the
impact of identifiable limitations, the Committee has concluded that data from these studies are
interpretable and informative. In its analysis of Gulf War epidemiologic research, the Committee has
emphasized patterns of illness and associations that are consistent across multiple studies. It has also
given more credence to findings from studies that have used preferred methods in sampling, data
collection, and data analysis.
A key methodological issue raised in the Committee’s 2004 report is the importance of evaluating health
outcomes in identifiable subgroups of Gulf War veterans, as opposed to assessing all deployed veterans as
a single group. This requires assessing the health status of veterans who served in particular locations,
those in particular units, or those known to have had specific exposures.79,210,593,1477 Combining all Gulf
War veterans into a single group may obscure or completely mask health effects due to events or
exposures that did not affect all deployed personnel. For example, studies have reported selected health
outcomes in veteran subgroups identified by modeled exposure to oil well fire smoke as well as nerve
agents in relation to the Khamisiyah demolitions. Several have provided stark examples of links between
exposures and disease or biological abnormalities that were not apparent when all deployed veterans were
evaluated as a single group.190,192,599,1237
Confounding and risk factors for Gulf War illness. A major challenge in understanding results
from Gulf War epidemiologic studies relates to the complex exposure scenario present in the Gulf War
theater. Studies have typically evaluated effects of 20 or more experiences and exposures in theater—
everything from combat experiences and other sources of stress, to oil well fires, vaccines, pesticides, and
chemical alarms. Studies have consistently found that Gulf War exposures are highly
correlated.161,241,458,1466 That is, veterans who reported some specific exposures during deployment were
significantly more likely to also report other specific types of exposures. Those familiar with
epidemiologic methods will quickly recognize the serious potential this raises for confounding, that is,
confusing the effects of one deployment-related exposure with effects of multiple other exposures. 811
In less complex settings, confounding can be a major source of error that gives rise to incorrect—even
nonsensical—findings, misleading both investigators and those who read their studies.734 In a uniquely
complex exposure scenario such as the Gulf War, the impact of confounding can be profound.
Fortunately, familiar analytic methods are available that can both identify which exposures are related to
which other ones, and “tease out” effects of individual exposures. This allows epidemiologic studies to
identify “independent” associations between illness and each exposure in a complex setting. In scenarios
like the Gulf War, where many veterans encountered multiple varied exposures, use of such methods is
essential to determine which Gulf War experiences are truly linked to ill health and which only appear to
be, as a result of confounding.
Many Gulf War epidemiologic studies were careful to control for possible confounding by demographic
factors such as age and gender, or military characteristics such as rank and branch of service. As detailed
in Appendix A, adjustment for demographic factors typically had little effect on study results. In contrast,
consistent, sometimes dramatic, confounding effects were demonstrated by studies that adjusted
preliminary results for effects of multiple deployment-related exposures, as shown in Table 3. Invariably,
unadjusted, or “crude” analyses suggested that most exposures and experiences in theater—from bagging
sand to hearing chemical alarms—were significant risk factors for Gulf War illness. But relatively few
significant risk factors were identified after adjustments were made for the effects of multiple exposures,
as demonstrated in Table 3 and detailed in Appendix A.
The Committee was concerned and somewhat surprised to find that many Gulf War epidemiologic studies
had not accounted for the high degree of confounding introduced by the complex Gulf War exposure
scenario. As a result, some studies involving impressive population samples and data collections actually
reported that nearly all of the exposures in the Gulf War appeared to be significant risk factors for chronic

Characteristics and Impact of Gulf War Illness: Epidemiologic Research  33

Table 3. Effects of Confounding by Multiple Exposures in Theater:
Examples from Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Gulf War Illness
with Experiences and Exposures in Theater
Gulf War
Veterans Studied

Number of
Veterans

Health
Outcome

U.S. Air Force
veterans1124

1,155

Severe CMI

U.S. Navy
Seabees527

3,831

Gulf War
Illness

Army veterans in
Northeastern
U.S.1804

1,290

CMI

Experience or
Exposure Assessed

No Adjustment for
Confounding by
Multiple Exposures

Adjusted for Effects of
Confounding by
Multiple Exposures

Bagging/digging sand sign* (OR = 3.1)
Came under attack
sign* (OR = 2.4)
Took pyridostigmine sign* (OR = 3.0)

no association
no association
sign* (OR = 2.9)

Anthrax vaccine
Saw dead bodies
Pesticides

sign* (OR = 3.7)
sign* (OR = 2.6)
sign* (OR = 3.5)

no association
no association
sign* (OR = 1.9)

10+ chemical alerts
Diesel fuel
Oil fire smoke

sign* (OR = 2.7)
sign* (OR = 2.7)
sign* (OR = 2.9)

no association
no association
sign* (OR = 2.4)

Abbreviations: CMI = chronic multisymptom illness,464 sign* = statistically significant association, OR = odds ratio

ill health in Gulf War veterans.104,692,1698 Such a conclusion is, of course, illogical. Nonsensical findings
of this type were sometimes dismissed by investigators as the result of veterans’ over-reporting of
exposures. But such results are actually an expected result of confounding introduced by multiple highly
correlated exposures during deployment.
Seven Gulf War population-based studies systematically evaluated exposure/illness relationships using
analyses that adjusted for effects of multiple exposures in theater. These included the CDC study of Air
Force veterans,1124 two studies of Army veterans from the northeastern U.S. who returned from the war
through Fort Devens, Massachusetts,1239,1804 large studies of British Gulf War veterans241 and U.S. Navy
Seabees,527 and studies that assessed neurological and gastrointestinal symptoms in Danish veterans.695,1507
In addition, two studies evaluated a limited number of individual exposures while adjusting for effects of
one or two other selected exposures, as opposed to controlling for confounding in a more comprehensive
way. These included a large study of Gulf War veterans from the states of Washington and Oregon1466
and the study of Navy Seabees from the 24th Naval Mobile Construction Battalion.564 Studies that
assessed illness-exposure relationships using statistical methods that accounted for effects of multiple
exposures were generally considered the most informative by the Committee. Moreover, the limited
number of risk factors for Gulf War illness identified by these studies were surprisingly consistent.
Information bias: Misclassification. An additional source of error that can occur in epidemiologic
studies stems from inaccurate classification of the exposures and/or health outcomes being assessed. This
is a particular concern in Gulf War studies, which have usually relied on self-reported information for
both exposures and health status. As a result, recall bias—the tendency for individuals to recall or report
information inaccurately—has the potential to be particularly problematic in Gulf War research.
No external, objective validation is possible for most veteran-reported exposures. However, several
studies have assessed the reliability with which veterans report exposures using test-retest
methods.988,1165,1767,1804 Overall, veterans have reported some exposures more reliably than others.
Generally, the most reliably reported exposures were those that veterans experienced first hand and were
unique to the war, including encountering smoke from oil well fires, taking pyridostigmine bromide, and
having a SCUD missile explode nearby. Lower, but fair reliability was associated with exposure to
substances such as pesticides and fuels, and hearing chemical alarms. Exposures about which veterans

34  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

might have had little first-hand knowledge at the time of exposure, such as exposures to depleted uranium
and CARC paint, were reported least reliably. 988,1165,1767
Questions about the accuracy of veterans’ self-reported exposures require that identified risk factors for
Gulf War illness be assessed and interpreted with caution. Errors resulting from misclassification can
produce both overestimates and underestimates of the degree to which a particular exposure is actually
associated with illness. It is useful to note that studies of both U.S. and U.K. Gulf War veterans have
found that the reliability of self-reported exposures was unrelated to veterans’ health status, that is,
symptomatic veterans report exposures with the same degree of reliability as healthy veterans.988,1767,1804
This indicates a potential for “nondifferential” misclassification of exposures, that could lead to
underestimates of the degree of risk resulting from some Gulf War exposures, particularly those reported
less reliably.
Unlike exposures, Gulf War studies have generally found that veterans report medical conditions with a
high degree of reliability.692,751,789,989 For example, medical record reviews for a subset of veterans
participating in the U.S. national survey of Gulf War era veterans indicated that self-reported conditions
related to clinic visits and hospitalizations were reported accurately 93 percent of the time.751
Studies have assessed the impact of reporting biases on epidemiologic findings in Gulf War studies using
different approaches.692,988,1088,1165 One recent study, for example, reported that veterans in VA’s national
survey who had been notified that they were potentially exposed to nerve agents following weapons
demolitions at Khamisiyah, Iraq, were no more likely to report symptoms, medical conditions, or
healthcare visits than other veterans. Investigators concluded that, contrary to expectation, veterans who
believed they may have been exposed to nerve gas showed no tendency to “over report” health
problems.1165 A study of Gulf War veterans in the Pacific Northwest found that media coverage of both
the Khamisiyah weapons demolitions and studies showing adverse effects of Gulf War exposures had
very little impact on veterans’ reports of chemical agents and other exposures in theater.988 Iowa
investigators reported that Gulf War veterans were no more likely to respond to health questions in a
socially desirable way than nondeployed era veterans.692 And in a study of the Fort Devens cohort,
inclusion of a measure of recall bias in multivariable analyses had no impact on identified associations
between exposures and Gulf War illness.1804
Taken together, such studies suggest that despite obvious concerns related to the potential effect of recall
bias on Gulf War studies, its actual impact does not appear to have been extensive enough to render study
results uninformative. Still, the potential for error introduced by recall bias and other sources of
information bias is an important reason for considering patterns of results provided by multiple studies,
rather than relying on individual studies, especially when assessing relationships between experiences in
theater and Gulf War illness.

Characteristics and Impact of Gulf War Illness: Epidemiologic Research  35

Gulf War Illness Prognosis and the Need for Treatments
Are Veterans with Gulf War Illness Getting Better or Worse With Time?
The question of whether veterans with Gulf War illness have generally recovered or become worse is an
important one. Four studies have assessed the health of Gulf War veterans over time, all leading to the
same conclusion. In 1998, investigators from the Boston VA Environmental Hazards Center reported that
veterans in the Fort Devens cohort, evaluated at two time periods between 1992 and 1996, exhibited no
significant differences in either the types or average number of symptoms reported.1239 When veterans
from the same group were evaluated a third time two years later, 90 percent of those who had previously
been identified as CMI cases continued to meet defining criteria for CMI.1804
Similarly, a study of over 1,000 British Gulf War veterans found that their symptomatic ill health
remained relatively stable over time. In two evaluations, four years apart, British Gulf War veterans
exhibited a slight worsening of functional status, but improved slightly on measures of fatigue and
psychological distress.644 Declining health was most associated with veterans’ having more severe
symptoms at baseline, believing they had “Gulf War Syndrome,” and having more psychological
distress.643 Recently, New Jersey investigators also reported little change in the health of symptomatic
Gulf War veterans over time. Among nearly 400 U.S. Gulf War veterans surveyed in both 1995 and
2000, no significant changes in the average number or severity of symptoms were found. Veterans who
had been highly symptomatic in 1995 remained so in 2000, although as a group they experienced a slight
reduction in symptoms.1163
Additional insights into the development and prognosis of Gulf War illness were provided by preliminary
results from VA’s longitudinal study of nearly 6,000 Gulf War veterans, presented to the Committee by
Dr. Han Kang.745,748 In this national sample, 35 percent of Gulf War veterans indicated they had
developed multisymptom illness since the war, with most (67%) reporting that onset occurred between
1991 and 1993. Only two percent of those who had developed multisymptom illness said they had since
recovered. Seven percent felt they were “much improved” but 15 percent indicated their condition had
become “much worse” over time.
Results from all longitudinal Gulf War studies clearly indicate that few veterans with Gulf War illness
have recovered over time and only a small minority have substantially improved. Studies also indicate
that the majority of symptomatic Gulf War veterans have not become progressively worse with time.
However, a subgroup of veterans do appear to have become worse in the years since they first became ill.
The Urgent Need for Effective Treatments for Gulf War Illness
Gulf War illness has persisted for a very long time for most ill veterans—seventeen years for many.
Special panels and government committees assembled to address questions related to the health of Gulf
War veterans have consistently emphasized the importance of providing adequate treatments for affected
veterans. But effective treatments for Gulf War illness have not yet been identified. The federal
government has sponsored just three completed clinical trials to study treatments for Gulf War illness,
only two of which have published study results. In addition, many thousands of ill veterans have been
seen for this condition in government and private healthcare settings in the 17 years since the war. But
few systematic evaluations have reported on the degree to which the treatments veterans receive have
been useful in improving their health. The Committee’s 2004 report indicated that the federal
government had spent over 21 million dollars for treatment research up to that time, the majority ($15
million) for two large multi-center clinical trials. Additional funding was provided for an unpublished

36  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

Table 4. Studies Reporting Effects of Treatments for Gulf War Veterans
with Multisymptom Illness

Study

Sponsor

Number of
ill veterans

Design

Major Findings

case
series

In 1st report, 55 of 73 symptomatic veterans interviewed
indicated good response with doxycycline therapy; in 2nd
report, 11 of 14 veterans who tested positive for mycoplasma
infection recovered after multiple cycles of antibiotic therapy.

case
series

3 months after completion of 3 week multidisciplinary
treatment, mean increase of 1 point on SF36 PCS, women
improved more than men; little change in symptoms.

36 veterans

RCT

Antibiotic treatment group had significant reduction in
headaches and measures of fatigue and pain compared to
placebo. Treatment group had median improvement of 22
points on SF36 PCS.

491 veterans
at 26 sites

multicenter
RCT

No significant difference between doxycycline treatment and
placebo on 10 outcome (7 point improvement on SF36 PCS
over 12 months): 18% of treatment group improved and 17%
of placebo group improved. Treatment group had mean
increase of 2 points on SF36 PCS.

multicenter
RCT

CBT provided statistically significant benefit on 10 outcome (7
point improvement on SF36 PCS over 12 months): 12% of
“usual care” and exercise only groups improved; 18% of both
CBT and CBT+exercise groups improved. CBT arm had
mean increase of 1 point on SF36 PCS.

Multiple courses of antibiotic
treatment for mycoplasma
infection1118,1119

none

2 series of
73, 14
veterans

Multidisciplinary Treatment for
Medically Unexplained
Symptoms406

DOD

109 veterans

Louisiana Medical Foundation
Antibiotic Treatment Trial 332,670

Antibiotic Treatment of Gulf
War Veterans’ Illnesses355

Exercise/Cognitive Behavioral
Therapy in Veterans with Gulf
War Illnesses354

DOD

DOD/VA

DOD/VA

1,092
veterans at
20 sites

Abbreviations: DOD = U.S. Department of Defense, VA = U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, RCT= randomized, controlled trial,
SF36 PCS = Physical Component Score of the Medical Outcomes Short Form, CBT = cognitive behavioral therapy

antibiotic trial ($3 million) and for five VA case management demonstration projects ($3 million).
Findings from two published case series and the three federally-sponsored clinical trials are summarized
in Table 4.
Available information on Gulf War illness treatments. The two federal multi-center clinical
trials are the largest and best known of the Gulf War treatment studies. Briefly, the antibiotic treatment
trial evaluated whether a 12 month course of doxycycline treatment improved the health of Gulf War
veterans, as reflected in at least a seven point increase in the physical component score (PCS) of the
SF36.353 Veterans participating in the study were required to test positive for mycoplasma infection using
polymerase chain reaction methods. Although the study showed some benefit for the doxycycline
treatment group after three months, there were no differences between treatment and placebo groups after
12 and 18 months.355
The exercise/behavioral therapy trial studied the effects of 12 months of a directed exercise regimen and
cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), individually and combined, on Gulf War illness. Again,
improvement was measured by a seven point increase in the SF36 PCS. Only CBT provided a
statistically significant benefit over usual treatment, with 18 percent of participants improving with CBT
compared to 12 percent with usual treatment.354 Despite the modest benefit provided by CBT, results of
the two large trials, conducted at a cost of over 15 million dollars, were generally disappointing in that
neither intervention provided improvement for a substantial number of veterans.639 Overall, mean

Gulf War Illness Prognosis and the Need for Treatments  37

improvement on veterans’ SF36 PCS scores was only one point for CBT and two points for doxycycline
treatment.
The only other completed Gulf War illness clinical trial was a study of a complex, high dose antibiotic
regimen conducted by the Louisiana Medical Foundation, headed by the late Dr. Edward Hyman.670 The
intervention was unconventional, and the theory on which it was based was controversial.331,671,672,1454,1455
Study results were never published, but were presented to the Committee by two of Dr. Hyman’s coinvestigators, Dr. Quentin Deming and Mr. William Weiss. Briefly, the study was a randomized, double
blind, placebo controlled trial of intravenous, then oral antibiotics over a four month period. Specific
regimens and dosages varied, according to the presence of excreted gram-positive cocci detected by
microscopic evaluation of patients’ urine, and by patients’ symptoms.332,670
Although both the theory and intervention were unconventional, investigators used standard methods to
evaluate the health status of veterans before and after treatment. Results shared with the Committee
indicated that the treatment group improved significantly compared to the placebo group, with reductions
in the mean number of headaches per month (from 12.5 to 2.5, p < 0.001), significantly improved scores
on two fatigue scales, and improvement on the McGill Pain Inventory. The median SF36 PCS score was
reported to improve 22 points for the treatment group, compared to seven points for the placebo group,
and investigators indicated that no excess of side effects had been observed in the treatment group. No
significant differences were seen on measures of sleep quality, neuropsychological impairment, or
frequency of diarrhea.332 The Committee was intrigued by the apparent benefit provided by the treatment,
but concerned that study results had not been scientifically peer reviewed and published. The biological
rationale for the treatment approach was also puzzling. So although the empirical results appeared
extremely promising they were overshadowed by questions surrounding the study, most prominently the
role of excreted bacteria and the lack of scientific review and successful publication. Therefore, the
Committee was unable to come to firm conclusions regarding the meaning and importance of the study
findings and appropriate follow up.
There are few other sources of systematically-collected data on the effects of treatments used for Gulf
War illness. Two investigators have published observational findings on treatment outcomes in case
series of ill Gulf War veterans, as shown in Table 5. Dr. Garth Nicolson reported substantial benefit for a
subset of Gulf War veterans treated with multiple courses of antibiotics,1118,1119 and Dr. Charles Engel
reported slight functional improvement in veterans treated with a multidisciplinary intervention that
included CBT.406
Gulf War veterans with multisymptom illness who participated in VA’s national longitudinal study were
asked about their experience with treatments and lifestyle practices in relation to their symptoms.
Preliminary findings were presented to the Committee by Dr. Han Kang.745 Symptomatic veterans
reported using prescription and over-the-counter medications most frequently, followed by physical
therapy and nutritional supplements. The most highly rated category was over-the-counter medication,
which eight percent of ill veterans said had provided benefit for their symptoms, most prominently
headache and joint pain. About the same proportion indicated that diet and nutritional supplements had
helped, mostly for fatigue, joint pain, and gastrointestinal symptoms. Six percent reported physical
therapy had helped with somatic pain and five percent indicated that antidepressants had been helpful for
improving depression symptoms and sleep difficulties. Among unconventional therapies, about two
percent of symptomatic veterans reported that relaxation therapy had been helpful for joint pain, fatigue,
and headache. A similar number indicated that herbal medicines had provided benefit for memory loss,
fatigue, and joint pain.
Veterans also reported whether different activities and lifestyle behaviors had affected their symptoms.
Factors most often associated with improved symptoms were avoiding stressful situations (25%),
maintaining a well-balanced diet (20%), and cutting back on work or social activities (18%). The factors

38  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

most often said to make symptoms worse were vigorous exercise (35%) and maintaining a busy schedule
(23%). About the same number of veterans indicated that light exercise improved (16%) as worsened
(18%) their symptoms. These findings provide an interesting first look at the general types of approaches
veterans have used in addressing their illness. The Committee looks forward to reviewing additional
results from this study to learn, in more detail, about veterans’ appraisals of specific treatments.
No other systematically-collected data are available on effects of treatments for Gulf War illness. Two
physicians have provided public testimony on their clinical experience in treating a limited number of
veterans. In 1993, Dr. Myra Shayevitz provided testimony to Congress describing improvements in 25
symptomatic Gulf War veterans treated in an environmental clinic piloted at the Northampton,
Massachusetts VA Medical Center (VAMC).1399 The clinic intervention included reduced exposures to
chemicals, improved nutrition, and patient education and support. Several of Dr. Shayevitz’s patients also
provided written comments attesting to their improved health. Dr. David Root provided testimony to the
Presidential Special Oversight Board in 1998 and to the CDC Gulf War Research Planning Conference in
1999 about dramatic improvements observed in several highly symptomatic Gulf War veterans he had
treated with an intensive sauna/detoxification regimen used routinely for treatment of chemical injury and
substance abuse.1307,1308
VA’s Gulf War research portfolio currently includes three clinical studies that provide treatments for
symptomatic Gulf War veterans. A study conducted at the East Orange, New Jersey, VAMC is
evaluating the effectiveness of CBT administered by telephone to veterans with Gulf War illness.226 A
second study, conducted at the Northport, New York, VAMC, is evaluating continuous positive airway
pressure (CPAP) treatment for Gulf War veterans with disordered sleep. The third study, conducted by
investigators at the Salt Lake City VAMC, will treat small bowel bacterial overgrowth in veterans with
persistent diarrhea.
In addition, VA and DOD collaborated in convening expert panels that developed clinical guidelines for
evaluating veterans with post-deployment health concerns,1656 and for evaluation and management of
veterans with medically unexplained fatigue and pain.1655 Treatment guidelines for medically
unexplained symptoms were based on what was known about treatment of fibromyalgia and chronic
fatigue syndrome at the time the guidelines were developed in 2001. No information is available that
indicates whether government clinicians have used these guidelines in treating ill Gulf War veterans, or if
recommended treatments have been effective. The treatment guidelines have also become outdated.
Since 2001 a large amount of additional information has become available on medical treatments for
these conditions, particularly fibromyalgia, as will be described in a later chapter.
Future prospects for federally-sponsored Gulf War illness treatment research. As
described in the Committee’s 2004 report, there are two general approaches for identifying effective
therapeutic interventions. The first, an empirical approach, is based on clinical observations that certain
treatments provide improvements for certain conditions. Potentially beneficial treatments identified in
this way can be systematically assessed using outcomes research and randomized clinical trials to
scientifically determine their effectiveness. The second approach requires that specific biological
mechanisms underlying a disease be identified, so that treatments to counteract those processes can be
identified and tested for their effectiveness. For Gulf War illness, a complex condition for which specific
pathophysiological mechanisms are not well understood, both approaches will likely be needed in order to
identify the most effective treatments in the most timely way.
In response to recommendations in the Committee’s 2004 report, the Secretary of Veterans Affairs
announced that VA would fund a Gulf War illness treatment research initiative, largely focused on
identifying and evaluating treatments already available and being used to treat Gulf War illness and
conditions with similar features. Although a draft funding announcement for a treatment research center

Gulf War Illness Prognosis and the Need for Treatments  39

was provided for Committee review in late 2005, no final announcement was released and a treatment
research center has not been funded.
In 2006, two major changes occurred in federal funding for Gulf War illness research, as will be
described in detail in a later section. These changes included a total of 15 million dollars allocated in
FY2006 and FY2008 for a Gulf War illness research program managed by the Office of Congressionally
Directed Medical Research Programs (CDMRP) at DOD,1596 and a 15 million dollar annual allocation for
a comprehensive Gulf War illness research center at the University of Texas Southwestern (UTSW),
funded by VA. The two recently-funded programs have been directed to coordinate their efforts and will,
fundamentally, utilize the two approaches previously described for identifying effective treatments.
The initial funding solicitation issued by the CDMRP Gulf War illness research program indicated that
highest priority would be given to studies that identify and evaluate treatments for Gulf War illness. This
included funding for smaller scale studies to provide data on treatments currently being used for Gulf War
illness and similar conditions as well as treatments that address biological processes thought to underlie
Gulf War illness. The UTSW program, on the other hand, is focused on determining specific biological
mechanisms that underlie veterans’ symptoms, in order to identify treatments to address those processes.
Both programs have only recently begun implementing studies, and the Committee looks forward to
monitoring their progress. The CDMRP program announced, in 2007, that nine Gulf War illness studies
were funded with the initial program allocation. These included pilot trials of treatments for veterans
with Gulf War illness, and animal studies that will evaluate effects of treatments on biological processes
identified in animal models for Gulf War illness.737 The Committee regards both programmatic initiatives
to be positive steps forward in focusing Gulf War research on the highest priority objective, that is, to
improve the health of ill veterans.

40  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

Is There a Unique Gulf War Syndrome?
The question of whether the multisymptom illness affecting Gulf War veterans should be considered a
“unique Gulf War Syndrome” has been widely discussed and interpreted.134,252,324,556,667,668,686,918,1089,1757
What is meant by the question has often been unclear, as have attempts to answer it. For some observers,
a “unique syndrome” has meant that there should be just one constellation of symptoms affecting Gulf
War veterans—a single symptom complex constituting a single syndrome. For others, a “unique
syndrome” has meant that a single, unique cause for the symptoms should be demonstrated. For still
others, a “unique syndrome” has meant that similar symptoms would not be found in people who did not
serve in the Gulf War. And for several researchers, the question has hinged on whether a particular
statistical technique, factor analysis, identifies symptom correlations in Gulf War veterans that are not
found in other groups.
However the question of a unique syndrome in interpreted, extensive descriptive and analytic research has
clearly demonstrated that an illness, characterized by a complex of multiple symptoms, resulted from
service in the Gulf War. The specific symptoms affecting individual veterans can differ from person to
person, but the general types of symptoms are remarkably consistent across diverse Gulf War veteran
populations. Whether this Gulf War-related symptom complex represents several syndromes, or one
syndrome with several subtypes, is an issue of taxonomy that can only be definitively resolved as
objective markers become more firmly established.
Gulf War illness, as a consistent complex of symptoms affecting a defined population, fits most
definitions of what constitutes a syndrome. But this syndrome might not be considered unique, from
different perspectives. That is, there could be more than one type of pathophysiological process affecting
Gulf War veterans that leads to similar, overlapping symptom profiles. There could also be more than
one cause for these symptoms. And, lastly, Gulf War illness has some similarities to multisymptom
conditions found in other populations, as will be discussed in detail in a later section of this report.
The central issue of importance is that at least one fourth of veterans who deployed to the Gulf War as
healthy men and women developed an identifiable pattern of persistent, difficult symptoms as a
consequence of their military service. Whether this illness should be referred to as one or more
syndromes—unique or otherwise—is of less consequence. There is overwhelming evidence
demonstrating that Gulf War illness, however labeled, is a widespread problem in Gulf War veterans and
no evidence to the contrary.
Is Gulf War illness the same thing that happens after every war? Several commentaries and
reviews have described Gulf War illness as a condition that parallels syndromes historically described in
soldiers after they return from war.669,720,721,1500 These have included “irritable heart” or “Da Costa’s
syndrome” in Civil War veterans,302 shell shock and “effort syndrome” in World War I veterans, battle
fatigue in World War II veterans, and posttraumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans. In all eras,
soldiers serving in war have suffered from acute and chronic health problems that often affect more troops
than the number injured and killed in battle. This has historically included the effects of infectious
disease and extreme environmental conditions, but in more recent times has also included effects of
radioactive fallout, chemical defoliants, and chemical weapons.191
Experiences common to all wars include combat and the hardships of deployment, both of which can
have long-term physical and psychological consequences. Commentators who have characterized Gulf
War illness in the context of other post war syndromes have suggested—explicitly or implicitly—that
because the psychological impact of war can have long-term consequences, Gulf War illness is probably
another post-war stress syndrome, the result of psychological factors. This idea was accepted by some at
face value before data that specifically addressed these issues became available.

Is There a Unique Gulf War Syndrome?  41

Research studies have not supported the view that Gulf War illness is the same type of problem that
occurs after every war, nor that it can accurately be considered a post-war stress syndrome. As early as
1994, a National Institutes of Health Technology Assessment panel observed that symptom profiles
affecting Gulf War veterans differed from those of Vietnam veterans. Data from VA registries indicated
that symptoms of fatigue, muscle pain, headache, joint pain, and shortness of breath were more common
in Gulf War than Vietnam veterans.1121 British investigators have since systematically evaluated the
health and symptoms of military personnel who served in the 1990-1991 Gulf War, in Bosnia during the
1990s, and in Iraq in the current conflict. No “Gulf War syndrome”-like effect, that is, no pattern of
excess symptoms affecting a sizable number of veterans, was found in Bosnia or Iraq War
veterans.631,642,1698 The effect was only observed in veterans who served in the 1991 Gulf War.1088
Clinical reports on U.S. veterans who served in Operations Iraqi Freedom and Enduring Freedom also
have indicated that returning personnel have not been affected by high rates of symptomatic illness that is
not explained by diagnosable medical or psychiatric conditions.615,653
In contrast to Vietnam veterans and personnel returning from current conflicts in the Middle East,
population-based studies have consistently found that 1990-1991 Gulf War veterans have low rates of
posttraumatic stress disorder and other psychiatric conditions, as detailed in the next section of the report.
Further, studies that have comprehensively assessed risk factors associated with the Gulf War consistently
indicate that Gulf War illness is not associated with serving in combat or other stressors during
deployment.
Available evidence therefore indicates that Gulf War illness is not the same thing that happens after every
war and is not a post-war stress syndrome. Each war is unique, each has its own profile of risks and
health consequences.291,1216,1723 All wars present some degree of trauma for troops in battle, but many
wars also present other hazards. The effects of blister agents in World War I or the Iran-Iraq War, for
example, should not be equated to the psychological consequences of soldiers fearing for their lives or
seeing a buddy die on the battlefield. Neither should the effects of Agent Orange be confused with the
effects of the traumatic experiences many soldiers encountered in the jungles of Vietnam. Service in the
1991 Gulf War resulted in a complex health problem not typical of other wars that cannot be understood
simply as the expected result of deployment-related stress.

42  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

Other Gulf War Health Issues
Gulf War illness is the most prevalent health problem affecting Gulf War veterans, but not the only health
issue related to Gulf War service. Additional important issues include rates of diagnosed medical and
psychiatric conditions in Gulf War veterans, particularly neurological conditions, cancers, and respiratory
diseases, as well as causes and rates of mortality. Although Gulf War epidemiologic studies have
commonly reported hospitalization and mortality rates, relatively little information is available concerning
diagnosed diseases not normally associated with hospitalization or premature death. In addition,
important questions about health problems affecting veterans’ children and other family members have
persisted since the Gulf War.
Diagnosed Diseases Affecting Gulf War Veterans
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The most serious condition reported to affect Gulf War veterans at a
higher-than-expected rate is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, also known as ALS or Lou Gehrig’s disease.
This serious and progressive neurodegenerative disease most often strikes individuals between age 55 and
75, affects men more often than women, and is almost universally fatal. A 2003 VA study reported that
Gulf War veterans were about twice as likely to have ALS as nondeployed era veterans based on 40
confirmed Gulf War-deployed ALS cases.636 The excess risk was particularly pronounced in Air Force
Gulf War veterans, who had ALS at nearly three times the rate of their nondeployed peers.
The VA research team made a concerted effort to determine whether the excess ALS rate observed in
Gulf War veterans could be an artifact of ascertainment error, that is, failure to detect some ALS cases
among the nondeployed. After adjusting for this potential bias using three different methods, results still
indicated a significant excess of ALS in Gulf War veterans.260,633 Research from the University of Texas
Southwestern raised additional concern that Gulf War veterans may have developed ALS at a youngerthan-normal age, finding that a large number of cases occurred in veterans under age 45.557 In addition,
military hospitalization data indicated that active duty personnel who had served in the Gulf War had a
1.7 times higher rate in ALS hospitalizations between 1991 and 1997, compared to nondeployed era
veterans, an excess that was not statistically significant.1432
A later report from a 2005 study of over 400,000 men in an American Cancer Society cohort indicated
that men who had served in the military, overall, were more likely to have died of ALS than men who
were not in the military.1759 This raised questions about whether an excess risk of ALS is related to
military service in general, rather than Gulf War service specifically.1206,1310 As a result, VA
commissioned a special report from the Insitute of Medicine, which concluded that there was limited, but
suggestive evidence that ALS is associated with military service in general.685
Results of the Cancer Society study are important in providing a preliminary indication that military
service could be a risk factor for ALS. But it is unclear why researchers and government officials have
suggested, based on findings from this study, that ALS may be linked to military service, but not
specifically with Gulf War service. The VA Gulf War ALS study found that ALS affected Gulf War
veterans at twice the rate of nondeployed Gulf War era military personnel. If military personnel are,
overall, at increased risk for ALS, the observed excess of ALS in Gulf War veterans compared to other
military personnel would be of particular concern.
The Cancer Society study provided information on ALS among military veterans serving from World
War II through the Vietnam eras, but no insights on rates of ALS in deployed vs. nondeployed veterans or
in Gulf War veterans compared to veterans of other eras.1759 Therefore, results of this study do not
diminish concerns raised by studies that have identified an excess of ALS specific to Gulf War

Other Gulf War Health Issues  43

deployment. This excess could be of greater concern if military service in general is also a risk factor for
ALS.
Recently, additional findings reported from the large VA ALS study indicated that most new ALS cases
among Gulf War veterans identified in the 10 years after the war had their initial onset by 1996. The
excess of ALS cases declined after that time—both in Gulf War veterans overall, and in those under age
45.634,635 Additional analyses also identified differences in ALS risk related to geographical areas where
troops were located during deployment.1052,1053 These recent reports indicate that ALS in Gulf War
veterans occurred in the pattern of a time-limited disease “outbreak,” resulting from events or exposures
during Gulf War deployment. If the post-1996 pattern of new onset ALS cases continues, the number of
excess ALS cases among Gulf War veterans will be less than had initially been suggested by early
studies. But it is not known if the risk of ALS, which normally increases after age 55, will differ in Gulf
War veterans as they age. The seriousness of this disorder requires that ALS rates in Gulf War veterans
continue to be monitored for the foreseeable future.
In response to early reports that ALS was associated with Gulf War service, VA developed an ALS
registry for Gulf War era veterans. That registry has since been expanded to include all veterans with
ALS who served in the military during any period.756 In addition, VA has developed a brain tissue bank
that will enroll and collect tissues from veterans with ALS identified in the registry.441,1225
Other neurological diseases. Very little information is available concerning rates of other diagnosed
neurological diseases in Gulf War veterans. In light of the excess of ALS in Gulf War veterans, as well as
consistent findings related to persistent neurological symptoms, it is important to determine if other
neurological diseases have disproportionately affected Gulf War veterans. In its 2004 report, the
Committee recommended that rates of multiple sclerosis (MS), Parkinson’s disease, brain cancers, and
difficult-to-characterize neurological disorders be identified in Gulf War veterans and suitable
comparison groups. Since the Committee’s report was issued, veterans’ organizations and members of
Congress have called on the federal government to conduct research to determine the rate of MS in Gulf
War veterans.1694,1721 In 2008, VA initiated a case/control study of veterans who were service-connected
for MS disability by the Veterans Benefits Administration (VBA).1747 This study will not identify
incidence or prevalence rates of MS in Gulf War veterans but may provide insights concerning
characteristics of MS and risk factors for MS potentially related to Gulf War service.
Other than limited information from hospitalization studies, the only other studies that have assessed
neurological disease in Gulf War veterans evaluated rates of mortality due to neurological disease. A
2005 study, conducted by investigators from the Washington, D.C., VAMC, identified an excess rate of
brain cancer deaths among Gulf War veterans who, according to DOD models, were potentially exposed
to low levels of nerve agents in relation to chemical weapons demolitions at Khamisiyah, Iraq, in 1991.192
Veterans in affected areas were twice as likely, overall, to have died from brain cancer between 1991 and
2000 as veterans in other locations. Excess rates were most apparent during the last few years of follow
up (1997-2000). A dose-response effect was also noted, wherein higher brain cancer mortality occurred
in veterans who were in affected areas for longer periods of time.190,192
Researchers are currently conducting an updated mortality study to evaluate causes of death in U.S. Gulf
War veterans through 2004.105 Preliminary results, shared with the Committee in 2008, are similar to
findings reported in 2005. Investigators continue to identify a significant excess of brain cancer deaths
among Gulf War veterans potentially exposed to nerve agents related to the Khamisiyah demolitions.
These mortality studies provide useful information on deaths due to brain cancer, and demonstrate the
importance of evaluating diseases in subgroups of Gulf War veterans with specific exposure and/or
location histories. However, other types of research are still needed to determine whether Gulf War
service is associated with excess rates of diagnosed neurological diseases that have not been fatal.

44  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

Cancer in Gulf War veterans. Government committees and special panels have long called for
studies to determine if Gulf War veterans have developed cancer at higher-than-expected rates since
Desert Storm.1227,1673,1682 Identifying cancer rates in Gulf War veterans is especially important now, 17
years after the war, since many cancers first become apparent 10 to 20 years after an initiating event. The
most comprehensive study of cancer in Gulf War veterans comes from Great Britain. A 2003 study
identified the incidence of multiple types of cancer between the years 1991 and 2002 in the entire cohort
of U.K. Gulf War veterans and a matched comparison group, using data from the British National Health
Service.943 No differences were found between Gulf War and era veterans for rates of all cancers
combined, nor for any site-specific cancers.
In the absence of a similar cancer data resource in the United States, comprehensive information on
cancer rates in U.S. Gulf War veterans has not been reported. As previously described, results from a
national study found an excess of brain cancer deaths in relation to the Khamisiyah weapons demolitions.
The 2005 study identified 25 brain cancer deaths in veterans potentially exposed to nerve agents, an
excess of 14 brain cancer deaths per 100,000 exposed veterans.190 In contrast, in a population-based
survey of about 1,800 Gulf War veterans in five U.S. states, no excess of physician-diagnosed cancer was
reported by veterans who had been within 50 kilometers of Khamisiyah. Overall, however, three times as
many Gulf War veterans as nondeployed era veterans in this sample reported being diagnosed with some
type of cancer. The excess of reported cancer diagnoses—21 cases among Gulf War veterans, and three
cases among nondeployed veterans—did not reach statistical significance.989
Only limited information is available concerning verified cancer diagnoses in U.S. Gulf War era veterans.
An early hospitalization study reported that, in the months immediately following Desert Storm, active
duty Gulf War veterans were twice as likely to be hospitalized for testicular cancer as nondeployed era
veterans.523 This difference was no longer apparent after five months, leading investigators to conclude
that the temporary rate spike had been due to Gulf veterans deferring care for this condition until they
returned home from deployment.820
A later study, using 1991-1999 data from cancer registries in New Jersey and the District of Columbia
(D.C.), reported a two-fold proportional excess of testicular cancer in Gulf War veterans, compared to
nondeployed era veterans.894 Proportional excesses were also reported for non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and
brain cancer from D.C. registry data, but not the New Jersey registry. This team has continued to collect
and analyze cancer data on Gulf War and era veterans from additional state cancer registries. Preliminary
results from a total of eight registries were shared with the Committee by Dr. Paul Levine. Data from
some states suggested slight excesses in the crude incidence of testicular and brain cancers in Gulf War
veterans compared to nondeployed era veterans between 1991 and 1999. Proportional differences were
not significant, however, after adjustments for age and race.892 This ongoing investigation currently
includes data from 28 state cancer registries, which cover about 83 percent of U.S. Gulf War and era
veterans.959 The Committee looks forward to reviewing additional results from this important research.
Although studies to date have raised only limited concerns about cancer in Gulf War veterans, a number
of important questions have not yet been adequately addressed. Very limited cancer data have been
reported for U.S. Gulf War veterans in general, and no published research on cases occurring after 1999.
Because of the extended latency periods associated with most cancers, it is important that cancer
information be brought up to date and that cancer rates be assessed in Gulf War veterans on an ongoing
basis. In addition, cancer rates should be evaluated in relation to identifiable exposure and location
subgroups, as was done in the 2003 British study and the U.S. mortality study related to Khamisiyah.
Data from VA’s longitudinal study can also be used to provide an indication of whether veteran-reported
cancers are associated with exposures in theater.
Other diagnosed conditions affecting Gulf War veterans. Limited information is available on
rates of other diagnosed diseases in Gulf War veterans. In addition to symptoms, epidemiologic studies

Other Gulf War Health Issues  45

have asked veterans to report if they had been diagnosed with a variety of medical conditions. Several
types of diagnoses are consistently reported at higher rates by Gulf War veterans than nondeployed era
veterans. These include migraines,527,751,1476,1698 seizures,748,751,989,1476 digestive conditions,527,748,751,1411,1476
respiratory conditions,527,751,1411,1476,1698 and skin disorders.527,751,1411,1476,1698 Generally, fewer excess
medical conditions have been reported by Australian and Danish Gulf War veterans than U.S. and U.K.
Gulf War veterans.696,789
Rates of respiratory conditions have been evaluated in several Gulf War studies.285,866,1434 As will be
described in more detail, one study reported that a higher proportion of Gulf War than nondeployed
veterans had been hospitalized for respiratory conditions, including asthma.528 In addition, one wellconducted study found that the subset of Gulf War veterans with greatest exposure to pollutants from oil
well fires had significantly elevated asthma rates.285
Multiple studies have evaluated rates of diagnosed psychiatric conditions in Gulf War veterans. Gulf War
veterans generally have higher rates of posttraumatic stress disorder and other psychiatric diagnoses than
nondeployed Gulf War era veterans,1488 but lower rates of psychiatric illness than combat veterans of
other wars. Findings on psychological stressors and psychiatric conditions are described in detail in the
next section of the report.
Most of the studies that have provided clinical examinations of Gulf War veterans have either included a
relatively small number of veterans464,565 or were case/control studies160 and so could not provide reliable
prevalence estimates for diagnosed conditions. Prevalence rates of selected diagnosed medical conditions
were provided in 2005 from Phase III of the U.S. National Survey of Gulf War era veterans.393 This
portion of the large U.S. national study provided clinical evaluations of 1,061 Gulf War veterans and
1,128 nondeployed era veterans 10 years after the war. Reported outcomes included SF36 PCS scores
and 12 medical conditions: fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, skin conditions, dyspepsia,
hypertension, hepatitis, symptomatic arthralgias, obstructive lung disease, diabetes, peripheral
neuropathy, and both hypo- and hyperthyroidism.
Results from the U.S. national study indicated that Gulf War veterans had a dramatically higher rate of
chronic fatigue syndrome than nondeployed veterans (1.6% vs. 0.1%, OR = 40.6), and significantly
higher rates of fibromyalgia (2.0% vs.1.2%, OR = 2.3), skin conditions (34.6% vs. 26.8%, OR = 1.4), and
dyspepsia (9.1% vs. 6.0 %, OR = 1.9). None of the other 12 conditions were significantly more common
in Gulf War veterans. On average, the general health status of Gulf War veterans, measured by the SF36
PCS, was only slightly worse in Gulf War than nondeployed veterans (49 vs.51). This difference was
statistically significant, but of minor clinical significance. Abnormalities identified on clinical
examination and mean values for all laboratory tests were also similar for Gulf War and nondeployed
veterans.393
These long-awaited findings from the large VA clinical study provided useful information about the 12
conditions assessed but few additional insights concerning the health of Gulf War veterans. It is not clear
why the 12 outcomes assessed were selected for evaluation, since many had not been shown in earlier
phases of the study to be problematic for Gulf War veterans. For conditions like diabetes and hepatitis,
clinical evaluations largely provided validation of what veterans had already reported. Regrettably, this
large clinical study has not provided information on many of the conditions found to affect Gulf War
veterans at excess rates in earlier phases of the study, conditions like recurrent headaches and migraines,
diarrhea and colitis, seizures, and sinusitis. Neither was information provided on other medical
conditions of interest such as cancers, autoimmune disorders, and heart disease. Mean values for
deployed and nondeployed veterans were reported for all measures, but no information was provided on
subgroups of potential interest, for example, subgroups of veterans with abnormal findings on laboratory
tests, and subgroups of veterans who reported specific exposures.

46  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

So, while additional insights have been provided from VA’s Phase III clinical study, important questions
remain about the extent to which Gulf War veterans may be disproportionately affected by diagnosed
medical conditions. It is important to determine if Gulf War veterans and, in particular, subgroups of
Gulf War veterans with specific exposures during the war, have excess rates of diagnosable neurological
conditions, cancer, respiratory diseases, or other chronic diseases.
Mortality Rates Among Gulf War Veterans
The question of whether there is an abnormally high rate of death among Gulf War veterans, or if
veterans have died at younger-than-expected ages, is of great interest and importance. In the seventeen
years since Desert Storm, government reports and research studies from both the U.S. and the U.K. have
consistently indicated that Gulf War veterans have not, overall, had higher rates of death due to diseases
but have had higher rates of accident-related deaths than nondeployed era veterans. Overall mortality
rates in both deployed and nondeployed era veterans are lower than in the general population, however.
Post-war mortality statistics are available from three published studies of U.S. Gulf War veterans and two
studies of British veterans, along with regular mortality reports provided by the U.K. Ministry of Defence.
The most recent published information on mortality in U.S. Gulf War and nondeployed veterans reports
on deaths through 1997, identified by VA’s Beneficiary Identification and Records Locator Subsystem
(BIRLS) and the Social Security Administration, with causes of death identified by the U.S. National
Death Index.749 That study reported that early post-war figures indicating lower disease-related mortality
in Gulf War veterans, and higher accident-related mortality, had become more similar over time. By
1996-1997, rates of mortality resulting from both disease and accidents were nearly identical in deployed
and nondeployed veterans. Later information has been published on mortality rates through the year 2000
for Gulf War veterans only, in relation to the Khamisiyah plume models, as previously described.192
Preliminary findings from an ongoing mortality study conducted by investigators at the Washington,
D.C.,VAMC were shared with the Committee in 2008.105 That study is evaluating overall and causespecific deaths that occurred among U.S. Gulf War and nondeployed era veterans through 2004. Early
results indicate that, overall, Gulf War veterans continue to have a lower mortality rate due to diseases,
and a higher mortality rate due to accidents, than nondeployed era veterans. However, investigators
reported that female Gulf War veterans have significantly greater mortality, overall, than nondeployed
female era veterans, and excess deaths due to digestive system diseases and external causes, including
motor vehicle accidents. Preliminary findings also continue to indicate that brain cancer mortality is
elevated among Gulf War veterans in relation to modeled levels of exposure to nerve agents. These
preliminary findings are provocative, and the Committee looks forward to further reviewing results of this
important study as they are finalized.
Mortality rates among British Gulf War veterans through 2006 have shown trends similar to those
observed in U.S. veterans. Over time, excess rates of accident-related deaths identified in the years just
after the war have become more comparable to those of nondeployed veterans. In a recent report,
however, the U.K. Ministry of Defence reported that between 1991 and 2007, veterans of the 1991 Gulf
War had a higher rate of suicide, or possible suicide, than nondeployed veterans of the same era.1569
Overall rates of death due to diseases remained somewhat lower in Gulf War veterans, compared to
nondeployed era veterans.1569 Additional details of interest are provided by a report on mortality in
British veterans in relation to experiences/exposures during the war.944 Just two associations were
identified, neither of which reached statistical significance. Veterans who reported handling pesticides
during the war were twice as likely as unexposed veterans to die from accident-related causes, and
veterans who reported depleted uranium exposure were twice as likely to die from disease-related causes.

Other Gulf War Health Issues  47

A number of theories have been put forward to explain why Gulf War veterans have experienced higher
rates of fatal accidents, most prominently motor vehicle accidents.124 These have included indications
that veterans have a greater propensity for risk taking behavior after hostile deployments,750 findings of
poorer attention and response speed in cognitively impaired veterans,554 reports of greater use of alcohol
by combat veterans,908 and the general similarities between characteristics of deployed military personnel
and people with the highest rates of motor vehicle accidents in the general population.629,908
Mortality studies have provided little indication that Gulf War veterans, overall, have suffered excess
rates of deaths due to diseases. However, the most recent comprehensive comparisons between U.S. Gulf
War and nondeployed veterans that have been published only include deaths that occurred before 1998.
Deaths due to diseases with longer latency periods would likely only have become apparent in more
recent years. Therefore, it is important that current figures for overall mortality, as well as diseasespecific mortality, for U.S. Gulf War era veterans be comprehensively evaluated and made publicly
available. Information on disease-specific mortality rates during the past 10 years are of particular
importance, and the Committee urges VA to make this information available at the earliest possible time.
Additional information on mortality rates among subgroups of Gulf War veterans—defined, for example,
by exposures and locations in theater and by branch of service—is also needed to determine if Gulf
veteran subgroups have been affected by any causes of death not apparent when all veterans are assessed
as a single group.
Hospitalization Rates Among Gulf War Veterans
Between 1996 and 2006, 14 studies reported rates of hospitalization in Gulf War veterans and comparison
groups.526,1428 Nearly all of these studies were limited to information on active duty military personnel
who were admitted to military hospitals. They therefore do not include the vast majority of Gulf War
veterans or hospital admissions. Recent VA figures indicate that over 90 percent of Gulf War veterans
had left the military by 2007.1650
Few differences between Gulf War and nondeployed era veterans have been reported from Gulf War
hospitalization studies. Both all-cause hospitalization rates and disease-specific hospitalizations have
been similar, overall, in comparisons between active duty Gulf War and nondeployed military personnel
from the same era. The few exceptions come from just three studies. The first reported that Gulf War
veterans were hospitalized for fibromyalgia at significantly excess rates between 1991 and 1997, but not
for lupus. Findings on ALS hospitalizations during this period were inconclusive due to small numbers,
as previously described.1432 No more recent information concerning hospitalizations for these conditions
has been reported. A second study found that a higher proportion of Gulf War Marine Corps veterans
than Vietnam Marine veterans were hospitalized for musculoskeletal conditions.148 The third study
included hospitalization information from nonmilitary hospitals. That study included 1991-1994 national
data from DOD and VA hospitals, as well as civilian hospitals in the state of California. Results indicated
a higher proportion of Gulf War than nondeployed era veterans had been hospitalized for injuries and for
respiratory and digestive diseases.528 Excess hospitalizations due to cardiac dysrythmia were also
reported among active-duty personnel who were, according to DOD models, potentially exposed to lowlevel nerve agents in relation to the Khamisiyah weapons demolitions.1433 Modeled exposure to
pollutants from oil well fire smoke was not associated with increased hospitalization risk.1434
As discussed in the Committee’s 2004 report, the large majority of cases of Gulf War illness would not be
identified using hospitalization data, since it is extremely uncommon for patients with undiagnosed,
symptom-defined illness to be hospitalized. There is also little reason to expect that a number of other
types of conditions reported to affect Gulf War veterans at excess rates would be identified by the
hospitalization studies conducted to date. Nearly all studies report only on hospitalizations among active
duty personnel in military hospitals. Veterans with serious conditions that might lead to hospitalization,

48  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

but who were no longer in the military, would not have been included in the studies. In addition, medical
conditions shown by some studies to have affected subgroups of Gulf War veterans affected by a
particular exposure, such as asthma and brain cancer, would potentially go undetected in hospitalization
studies that simply compare all deployed veterans to nondeployed veterans. Further, diseases with long
latency periods, potentially detectable at their later stages using hospital admission data, would not likely
be found in studies evaluating hospital admissions before 2000, the most recent year for which Gulf
veteran hospitalization data have been reported.
An enormous amount of effort and care have been used to analyze and report military hospitalization rates
in Gulf War veterans. Results of these studies have been reassuring, to some degree, by indicating that
Gulf War veterans have not been admitted to military hospitals at exceedingly high rates in conjunction
with the types of injuries and acute and chronic diseases that normally lead to hospitalization.
Gulf War hospitalization studies have largely been used to report on disease rates that are easiest to
quantify using data routinely collected for administrative purposes. Unfortunately, this “low hanging
fruit” is not particularly informative with respect to the types of health problems known or expected to be
of greatest concern for Gulf War veterans. Consequently, hospitalization studies have added little to our
understanding of health issues related to Gulf War service. It is possible that hospitalization data may be
more informative in future years, if diseases of long latency that require hospitalization emerge in
sufficient numbers. It will be important, however, that any future studies of hospitalization rates in Gulf
War veterans include nonmilitary hospitalizations, and determine disease-specific rates in relation to Gulf
War veteran subgroups of interest.
Birth Defects and the Health of Gulf War Veterans’ Family Members
In addition to issues related specifically to the health of veterans, concerns have persisted since the mid
1990s that veterans’ family members, particularly their children born after the war, have had health
problems related to some aspect of veterans’ Gulf War service. These issues were reviewed and
discussed in detail in the Committee’s 2004 report, including results of studies conducted to assess rates
of birth defects in veterans’ children. Since that time, findings from a large VA study that evaluated
spouses of Gulf War veterans have been published, providing a first look at whether veterans’ spouses
have been affected by excess health problems in the wake of Desert Storm.
Birth defects in children of Gulf War veterans. In 1995, a cover story in Life magazine reported
on several children, born to Gulf War veterans, who had serious birth defects including Goldenhar
Syndrome, a congenital disorder characterized by abnormal development of facial structures.171 This,
along with reports of birth anomalies in a National Guard unit that had served in Desert Storm,1194 raised
public concern and stimulated research to determine whether children born to Gulf War veterans had
abnormally high rates of birth defects. As discussed in the Committee’s 2004 report, early studies found
little evidence of a problem284,285,1194 but had important limitations relating both to the samples and
sources of data used. Later studies used larger and/or more representative samples of Gulf War veterans,
and more comprehensive methods to identify health problems in children under one year. These studies
did find that a limited number of adverse birth outcomes, though rare, occurred more commonly in Gulf
War veterans than nondeployed veterans.
A study of over 75,0000 children born in military hospitals between 1991 and 1993 indicated that infants
born to Gulf War veterans were about three times more likely to have Goldenhar syndrome-related
diagnoses than infants born to nondeployed veterans.56 This excess was not statistically significant,
however, because the total number of cases in both Gulf War and nondeployed veterans was extremely
small. The first indication of a significant excess of birth defects related to Gulf War service came from a
2001 report from VA’s large national survey of Gulf War era veterans. Study results indicated that

Other Gulf War Health Issues  49

children born to male Gulf War veterans after the war had twice the rate of “likely” birth defects as
children born to nondeployed era veterans. Children born to female Gulf War veterans had three times
the rate of “likely” birth defects.747 Because these data relied on veterans’ self-reports, investigators
conducted medical record reviews to evaluate diagnoses for veteran-reported birth defects where possible.
These reviews, conducted for two-thirds of reported birth defects, confirmed veterans’ reports in 88
percent of cases. Resulting adjusted estimates continued to indicate that children of Gulf War veterans
had significantly more birth defects than children of era veterans.744
A large British survey of Gulf War veterans also reported a significant excess of veteran-reported birth
defects among children conceived between 1991 and 1997 by male Gulf War veterans, compared to
nondeployed veterans. Birth defects affecting the musculoskeletal and genitourinary systems were most
prominent.361 For the subset of birth defects confirmed by medical records, excess rates were similar but
less pronounced. Both the U.S. and U.K. national studies have therefore suggested that birth defect rates
were higher in children of Gulf War veterans than children of nondeployed veterans, but fell within the
normal range expected in the general population.
Results of an impressive data collection effort by the U.S. Naval Health Research Center also indicated an
excess of birth defects in children of Gulf War veterans. This study linked Gulf War military service
information to 1989-1993 data from six states with active birth defects surveillance programs.57 Results
indicated that three types of birth defects were significantly more common in children born to Gulf War
veterans, conceived after the war. Children of male veterans had higher rates of two types of heart valve
defects—tricuspid valve insufficiency and aortic valve stenosis. Male children of female Gulf War
veterans were more likely to be born with hypospadias, a defect in the urethral opening. In contrast, there
were similar rates of birth defects in children of Gulf War and nondeployed veterans who had been
conceived before the war.
Studies have also reported other adverse pregnancy outcomes in relation to Gulf War service. Military
hospital data revealed a significant excess of ectopic pregnancies and spontaneous abortions among
women Gulf War veterans whose pregnancies were conceived soon after their return from theater.55 In
addition, male Gulf War veterans in both the large U.S. and U.K. Gulf War surveys reported higher rates
of miscarriages, but not still births, in pregnancies they had fathered.361,747 British Gulf War veterans
were also reported to have higher rates of infertility than nondeployed veterans.949
Few additional studies related to pregnancy outcomes have been reported in the years since the
Committee’s 2004 report. A postal survey collected data on pregnancy outcomes between 1991 and 1995
reported by over 4,000 U.S. Gulf War and nondeployed era veterans. No significant excess of low birth
weight, ectopic pregnancies, stillbirths, or miscarriages were reported for male or female Gulf War
veterans, when analyzed separately.1761 Similar results were reported from a postal survey of Australian
Gulf War veterans.791 Neither study provided information on birth defects, however.
It is difficult to draw firm conclusions related to birth defects and pregnancy outcomes in Gulf War
veterans, due to the diversity and limitations of study results reported to date. The three studies most
representative of Gulf War era veterans in the U.S. and U.K. have all indicated significant, but modest,
excess rates of birth defects in children of Gulf War veterans. Information on specific types of birth
defects has been inconsistent, however,362 and overall rates are still within the normal range found in the
general population.
Some of the remaining important questions concerning birth defects in children of Gulf War veterans
might be answerable using existing data. For example, differences in specific types of birth defects
reported in different studies might relate to effects of combining all deployed Gulf War veterans into a
single group, rather than analyzing birth defects in relation to characteristics of the veteran parents’
deployment or health. Birth defect rates, if related to veterans’ service in the Gulf War, could be most

50  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

pronounced in identifiable subgroups of veterans, for example, veterans with multisymptom illness,
veterans who were in certain areas of theater, or those exposed to certain hazardous substances. Birth
defects might also have been more problematic during certain periods after veterans returned, for
example, in pregnancies conceived soon after Desert Storm, as opposed to more recent conceptions.
Identifying patterns and risk factors for birth defects in defined populations can be extremely challenging,
particularly for birth defects that are uncommon.57 In addition to strategies aimed at obtaining additional
information from existing data, other research approaches will be needed to determine if birth defects
might be associated with Gulf War service generally, or with specific aspects of Gulf War service. This
could include case-control studies to evaluate Gulf War service and specific parental exposures as risk
factors for extremely rare types of birth defects.54 A study of this type recently reported that Gulf War
service was not a significant risk factor for new cases of Goldenhar Syndrome between 1996 and 2002,
although military service in the Army was a modest risk factor.1764
Another innovative approach for assembling and evaluating data on birth defects was presented to the
Committee by Ms. Betty Mekdeci. Ms. Mekdeci directs Birth Defect Research for Children (BDRC), a
private nonprofit organization that maintains special registries of children with birth defects, including
children of Gulf War veterans. The analytic approach of the organization involves comparing
proportional patterns of birth defects in different populations, in order to raise hypotheses about potential
problems in a given group. BDRC has identified a number of problems that appear to disproportionately
affect the over 3,000 children of Gulf War veterans in their birth defect registry. This includes 33
children with Goldenhar syndrome—substantially more cases than had been identified in the large
military hospital study. BDRC data also indicates that the majority of identified children with Goldenhar
Syndrome born to Gulf War veterans were born in 1992 and 1993, with fewer cases born after 1993.1020
Health problems in other family members. Media reports have also suggested that family
members and close contacts of Gulf War veterans have experienced anomalous health problems since
veterans returned from Desert Storm.130,1055,1250 Suggested causes have included transmissible infections
or contamination by chemical substances brought home on veterans’ uniforms and gear. A 1994 report
from the U.S. Senate Banking Committee indicated that many of the 1,200 ill veterans interviewed
reported that family members had developed health problems similar to their own.1688 In response to
these reports, VA provided free medical examinations to family members of Gulf War veterans who were
enrolled in the Gulf War Registry. No information from VA’s Gulf War family registry program has ever
been issued, however. Research studies have provided some information on the health of veterans’
family members, but have been limited to studies of birth defects among infants and the recent study on
veterans’ spouses. Research on rates of diagnosed diseases, symptomatic illness, and learning and
behavioral disorders among older children of Gulf War veterans is needed in order to determine whether
they have been affected by excess health problems, as has been suggested by media and veterans’ reports
and by the 1994 Senate investigation.
The large national U.S. study of Gulf War veterans included, in Phase III, clinical evaluations of a sample
of 539 spouses of Gulf War veterans and 600 spouses of nondeployed Gulf War era veterans.
Standardized medical, psychiatric, and neuropsychological examinations were performed ten years after
the war at 16 VA medical centers throughout the U.S. Nearly ninety percent of spouses evaluated in the
study were women. Health problems self-reported by Gulf veterans’ spouses were very similar to those
of nondeployed veterans’ spouses, except that Gulf veterans’ spouses were significantly more likely to
report having skin rashes (28%) and hepatitis (1%) than nondeployed spouses. There were no significant
differences between the two groups on medical examination, however, except that Gulf veterans’ spouses
had significantly fewer “group 1” or mild skin anomalies, such as moles, skin tags, and scars. There were
no significant differences in rates of fibromyalgia or chronic fatigue syndrome in veterans’ spouses. Nor
were there differences in diagnosed conditions such as diabetes, lung diseases, or hepatitis. Functional
status, as measured by the SF36 PCS, was also nearly identical in the two groups.394

Other Gulf War Health Issues  51

The long-anticipated results of this important study thus indicated that, overall, the health of spouses of
Gulf War veterans was similar to that of spouses of veterans who did not serve in the Gulf War. These
results are reassuring, in some measure. But additional information is needed before the question of Gulf
War illness, or other health problems in family members, can be laid to rest. As with Gulf War veterans,
the most prominent remaining questions about the health of veterans’ family members relate to
undiagnosed symptoms and symptom complexes. Specifically, are symptoms or groups of symptoms
more common in spouses of Gulf War veterans than nondeployed veterans? Are higher rates of
symptoms or diagnosed conditions experienced by spouses of veterans with Gulf War illness? And are
any health problems in veterans’ spouses associated with characteristics of veterans’ service in the Gulf
War, such as veterans’ locations, experiences, or exposures in theater? The majority of these questions
should be answerable using data already collected for the Phase III study.
Phase III of the U.S. national study also included clinical examinations of children of Gulf War and
nondeployed era veterans. Results have not yet been reported, but are of great interest and importance.
Reported information should include rates of symptoms and symptom complexes in veterans’ children, as
well as comprehensive information on diagnosed medical and behavioral conditions. Comparisons
should also be made between health outcomes in children of veteran subgroups of interest, as described
previously. The Committee urges investigators to complete and publish results of the children’s
evaluations, as well as additional results from the spouses’ evaluations, as soon as possible.

52  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

Special Committee and Government Reports
on the Health of Gulf War Veterans
In the seventeen years since Desert Storm, numerous government committees and specially-appointed
expert panels have been assembled to investigate the health problems affecting Gulf War veterans and/or
the government’s response to these problems. Relatively few scientific studies were available to inform
the conclusions of early panels. Their reports routinely called for more research, specifically
epidemiologic studies, to better characterize the health of Gulf War veterans. As described throughout
the present report, many studies of the types recommended by previous panels have now been completed,
allowing a more comprehensive evaluation of Gulf War-related health issues.
In 1994, the Defense Science Board Task Force on Persian Gulf War Health Effects reported that
“veterans in the hundreds have complained of a range of symptoms not yet explained by any clear-cut
diagnosis” and indicated that research was needed to determine if these complaints were precipitated by
service in Desert Storm.1595 In the same year, a panel convened at the National Institutes of Health
recommended that comprehensive epidemiologic studies be undertaken to better characterize health
problems affecting Gulf War veterans and their causes.1121 The Senate Banking Committee also issued
reports in 1994 that detailed their investigations of chemical exposures in the Gulf War and unexplained
health problems affecting veterans and their families. This report also called for in-depth epidemiologic
investigations to determine the nature and causes of veterans’ conditions.1688
The Presidential Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses, a panel of scientists and veterans
appointed by President Clinton, issued reports in 1996 and 1997 that recommended additional research to
characterize veterans’ health problems. The panel indicated that research was needed on effects of
individual and combined chemical exposures, and physical responses to stress.1227 Similarly, reports
issued by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) during this period called for additional research focused on
priority questions about the health of Gulf War veterans and emphasized the importance of coordinating
data collection efforts between the federal agencies involved in this effort.675,676
Perception of Gulf War veterans’ unexplained health problems and federal efforts to address them
changed markedly when DOD announced, in 1996, that demolition of Iraqi munitions caches at
Khamisiyah, Iraq, in March of 1991 had potentially exposed thousands of U.S. troops to low levels of the
nerve agents sarin and cyclosarin. The Department of Defense established the Office of the Special
Assistant for Gulf War Illnesses (OSAGWI), which initiated an extensive series of investigations, and
commissioned the RAND Corporation to provide scientific reports on specific topics of concern. Special
House and Senate committees undertook investigations and issued comprehensive reports detailing their
findings.1684,1690 Federal research conferences were held to highlight emerging results from scientific
studies on the health of Gulf War veterans. At the direction of Congress, the U.S. General Accounting
Office (GAO) investigated diverse Gulf War health and programmatic issues, issuing multiple reports that
evaluated the status of the federal response and gaps that had not been adequately addressed. A second
committee, the Presidential Special Oversight Board (PSOB) for Department of Defense Investigations of
Chemical and Biological Incidents, was appointed by President Clinton in 1998. The PSOB issued its
final report in 2000, providing general support for DOD’s investigations of exposures during the Gulf
War, but again calling for additional scientific research to better characterize the relationship of toxic
exposures to Gulf War illness.1232
The Institute of Medicine’s Gulf War and Health reports. In 1998, with few conclusive answers
to continuing questions about Gulf War illness and the federal response to this problem, Congress
directed VA to contract with the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) to review available research in
order to assist the Secretary of Veterans Affairs in making decisions about Gulf War-related disability
compensation. Public Laws 105-277 and 105-3681242,1243 directed that this review identify conditions that

Special Committee and Government Reports  53

affect Gulf War veterans at excess rates and assess the scientific evidence concerning associations
between those conditions and a detailed list of Gulf War exposures. In response, VA commissioned the
Institute of Medicine (IOM), of the National Academies, to conduct a series of reviews using a
methodology previously established to evaluate diseases affecting Vietnam veterans in relation to Agent
Orange.663 To date, the resulting Gulf War and Health series has included nine reports, including two
updated reports, and provided hundreds of conclusions.177,679,682-689,1740 The Committee was concerned to
find that the IOM reviews were not conducted in accordance with the laws that mandated them. As a
result, the Gulf War and Health reports have provided little information that is directly relevant to health
conditions that affect Gulf War veterans at excess rates, or their association with Gulf War exposures.
The 1998 legislation specifically directed that VA commission reviews that identify both diagnosed and
undiagnosed illnesses that affect Gulf War veterans at excess rates and, based on a comprehensive
consideration of available research, determine whether there is evidence that those illnesses are associated
with Gulf War exposures or Gulf War service. However, the health conditions considered in the IOM
Gulf War and Health reports have primarily included multiple types of cancer and a number of other
diagnosed diseases—conditions for which there are no indications that Gulf War veterans have been
affected at excess rates. In contrast, the IOM reports have provided almost no information on conditions
that do occur at excess rates in Gulf War veterans. That is, the Gulf War and Health reports have not
provided findings on possible associations between Gulf War illness or ALS and most Gulf War
exposures. Nor do they provide findings on conditions like migraines and seizures, which preliminary
information suggests may affect Gulf War veterans at excess rates, in relation to Gulf War exposures.
The legislation also directed that determinations be based on scientific evidence provided by both human
and animal studies. Most studies that evaluate biological effects of hazardous exposures are done in
animals, for ethical reasons. In recent years, a large number of animal studies have identified biological
effects of Gulf War exposures and combinations of exposures that were previously unknown. Although
animal research was sometimes described in the IOM reports, findings from animal studies were not
considered in drawing conclusions about the evidence that Gulf War exposures were associated with
health outcomes. Unlike IOM’s earlier Agent Orange reports, the standards used to determine levels of
evidence for the Gulf War and Health reports were expressly limited to consideration of results from
human studies.137,678,679 The omission of animal studies was especially striking in IOM’s updated report
on sarin, which had been requested by the Secretary of Veterans Affairs in 2003 specifically because of
new research in animals that demonstrated adverse effects of low-level sarin exposure.683,1641
A very limited number of exposure-disease associations have been identified in the IOM reviews. For
example, in Volume 3 of the series, the IOM panel concluded that there is sufficient evidence to indicate
that lung cancer is associated with petroleum combustion products.684 Findings of this type might
potentially be relevant to the health of Gulf War veterans in future years. But there has been no indication
that lung cancer, or the vast majority of conditions considered in the IOM Gulf War and Health reports,
have affected Gulf War veterans at excess rates. The hundreds of findings provided in the IOM reports
are largely inconclusive, indicating that there is insufficient evidence to determine if the diseases
considered are associated with the exposures considered, based on the types of studies considered.
The specific information included in the Gulf War and Health reports is also problematic, in that it
appears to reflect a process of reporting selected results from subgroups of studies, rather than integrating
and analyzing results from all available research. This is a pervasive problem, but several examples are
illustrative. A very prominent example relates to the limited or complete lack of consideration, in all Gulf
War and Health reports, of results from the many epidemiologic studies that have assessed associations
between Gulf War exposures and Gulf War multisymptom illness. Another straightforward example
comes from Volume 4, which reported the rate of multisymptom illness in Gulf War veterans from just
one study, as opposed to the seven studies identified by the present report. The one Gulf War illness
prevalence estimate provided was atypical, and substantially lower than all other studies.686 An additional

54  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

example relates to a highly publicized finding that, although Gulf War veterans have multiple excess
symptoms, there is no unique Gulf War syndrome.232,686 This conclusion was based solely on several
studies that had unsuccessfully attempted to identify a unique syndrome using factor analysis and a
related statistical technique, as previously described. The finding did not consider basic questions about
whether the statistical techniques were capable of identifying syndromes—unique or otherwise.
Unfortunately, this conclusion was widely misinterpreted in media reports to indicate that there was no
widespread problem associated with multisymptom illness in Gulf War veterans.
In short, IOM’s Gulf War and Health series of reports have been skewed and limited by a restrictive
approach to the scientific tasks mandated by Congress, an approach directed by VA in commissioning the
reports. These limitations are most notably reflected in the selective types of information reviewed and
the lack of in-depth analysis of the research literature and scientific questions associated with the health of
Gulf War veterans. There is a fundamental disconnect between the Congressional directive to VA and
VA’s charge to IOM for reviewing evidence on Gulf War exposures and their association with illnesses
affecting Gulf War veterans. The reports have particularly fallen short in advancing understanding of
associations between Gulf War exposures and Gulf War illness, the most prominent health issue affecting
Gulf War veterans.

Special Committee and Government Reports  55

Recommendations
Despite the brief duration and successful execution of the 1990-1991 Gulf War, 25-32 percent of Gulf
War veterans developed the chronic multisymptom condition known as Gulf War illness as a consequence
of their Gulf War service. Longitudinal studies indicate that few veterans with Gulf War illness have
recovered or significantly improved with time. The Committee gives highest priority to research focused
on identifying effective treatments for Gulf War illness. This research should include:
 Studies that identify and systematically evaluate the effectiveness of currently available treatments
used for Gulf War illness or conditions with similarities to Gulf War illness. Preliminary research
should include pilot trials and/or observational studies capable of identifying promising treatments
suitable for evaluation in larger clinical trials.
 Research to identify specific pathophysiological mechanisms underlying Gulf War illness that are
potentially amenable to treatment interventions.
 Research to evaluate novel therapies based on scientific findings as they emerge.
The Committee considers the information provided by VA’s national longitudinal study of Gulf War
veterans and continued monitoring of the health of Gulf War veterans over time to be extremely important
and recommends that VA:
 Make results from the national longitudinal study of Gulf War veterans publicly available at the
earliest possible time, including comprehensive findings related to multisymptom illness, treatments
and practices used by veterans to address their symptoms, and rates of medical diagnoses. Results
should include outcomes assessed according to the guidelines for epidemiologic research provided
below.
 Continue to monitor health and disease outcomes among veterans assessed in the National Survey of
Gulf War Era Veterans and Their Families, conducting longitudinal surveys and appropriate clinical
follow-up studies at five year intervals.
Although it is the most prevalent health problem affecting Gulf War veterans, Gulf War illness is just one
of a number of important Gulf War health issues. To provide needed information on other health issues
of concern for Gulf War veterans, the Committee recommends the following research:
 Epidemiologic research to identify rates of diagnosed neurological diseases (including multiple
sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and brain cancers), as well as central
nervous system abnormalities that are difficult to precisely diagnose, in Gulf War veterans and
appropriate comparison groups.
 Completion of current research comparing cancer rates in Gulf War and nondeployed era veterans,
and repeated assessment of cancer rates in Gulf War era veterans at regular intervals.
 Provide current information on overall and cause-specific mortality rates in Gulf War veterans, and
update this information, at minimum, at five year intervals. This should include information on
mortality in subgroups of Gulf War veterans identified by deployment locations, branch of service,
and exposures reported in the National Survey of Gulf War-era Veterans and Their Families.

56  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

 Further evaluate indications of possible increased risk of specific types of birth defects, and other
health problems in children of Gulf War veterans, using innovative study designs.
 That VA make available comprehensive information on family members of Gulf War veterans
from the national study of Gulf War era veterans and family members. This should include
information on diagnosed conditions, multisymptom illness, behavioral problems, and birth
defects. Health parameters should also be assessed in subgroups of interest, such as family
members of veterans with/without Gulf War illness, and subgroups defined by Gulf War exposures
and other characteristics of veterans’ wartime service.
Because of shortcomings and limitations in many epidemiologic studies of Gulf War veterans, the
Committee recommends the following principles for collecting and analyzing data on Gulf War illness
and the health of Gulf War veterans in ongoing and future studies and, where indicated, for reanalyzing
data in studies already completed.
 Studies of Gulf War veterans should use well-constructed and clearly-described case definitions for
Gulf War illness and illness subgroups. Pending more widespread acceptance of an established
case definition, preferred case definitions are those that most clearly distinguish the pattern of
symptoms in Gulf War veterans from those in nondeployed era veterans, such as the Kansas Gulf
War illness case definition.
 In addition to general comparisons between Gulf War and nondeployed veterans, Gulf War
research studies should analyze results in relation to Gulf War veteran subgroups of interest,
including ill vs. well veterans and subgroups defined according to veterans’ locations in theater,
exposures, and other military and deployment characteristics potentially relevant to the outcomes
evaluated.
 Associations between deployment-related exposures and health outcomes in Gulf War veterans
should be evaluated using analytic methods that appropriately control for the effects of
confounding introduced by multiple exposures during deployment.
The Department of Veterans Affairs has not adhered to requirements set forth by Congress in
commissioning the Gulf War and Health series of reports produced by the Institute of Medicine. As a
result, these reports have not addressed fundamental questions regarding Gulf War-related health
conditions and their relation to Gulf War exposures. The Committee therefore recommends:
 That VA, in commissioning reports mandated by Congress in PL 105-277 and 105-368,
substantially change the approach designated for reviewing scientific information and preparing the
reports. As directed by Congress, these reports should address both diagnosed and undiagnosed
illnesses affecting Gulf War veterans. Conclusions should be based on findings from the full range
of Gulf War epidemiologic studies, animal studies, and other research that provides information on
effects of Gulf War-related exposures.
 That VA contract with the Institute of Medicine to redo previously completed Gulf War and Health
reports to adhere to requirements set forth by Congress.
 That responsibility for contracting reports mandated by PL 105-277 and PL 105-368 be reassigned
from VA’s Office of Public Health and Environmental Hazards to another office within VA, to be
designated by the Secretary.

Recommendations  57

Operation Desert Storm:
Summary of the Offensive in the Four Day Ground War

U.S. Department of Defense

58  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

2| What Caused Gulf War Illness?
Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures
In addition to the many physical and psychological challenges that come with serving in a war zone,
military personnel in the 1990-1991 Gulf War encountered a unique mix of exposures during deployment.
These included a number of substances used for the first time by the military on a widespread basis—
pyridostigmine bromide pills given to protect troops from the effects of nerve agents, depleted uranium
munitions, and anthrax and botulinum toxoid vaccines. The oil and smoke that spewed for months from
hundreds of burning oil wells presented another exposure hazard not previously encountered in a war
zone. Military personnel also had to cope with teeming and biting insects, especially in the warmer
months, that required persistent environmental pest control measures and ample use of personal
pesticides. In some areas, troops frequently donned their chemical protective gear as chemical alarms
sounded again and again. Personnel were usually told the alarms were false and given the all clear, and
some units eventually turned off the alarms because they were thought to be malfunctioning. Years later,
the Department of Defense verified that chemical agents had been released in southeastern Iraq when U.S.
troops destroyed Iraqi weapons stored in a large compound, and launched multiple investigations into
other reported chemical incidents.
As an increasing number of reports of a mysterious Gulf War syndrome emerged in the months and years
after the war, many believed that veterans were suffering from effects of hazardous exposures they had
encountered during their deployment. Government officials and special committee reports maintained
that there was little evidence that this was the case, and suggested that veterans’ symptoms could be due
to the stress of deployment. In the first years after the war, scientific committees and government panels
attempted to investigate veterans’ unexplained health problems, but there were few facts to go on. Little
documentation was available about specific types and levels of exposures in theater, and relatively little
research had been done to evaluate veterans’ health problems.
Now, 17 years after the war, the situation is markedly different. Although there are relatively few data
from real time exposure measurements taken during the war, federal agencies have worked to provide
information on likely exposure patterns and levels using a variety of wide-ranging and innovative efforts.
For example, weather and satellite information has been used to determine daily patterns of wind
dispersion of smoke from oil well fires and chemical plumes resulting from weapons demolitions.
Sophisticated simulations have measured levels of depleted uranium that soldiers might have inhaled or
gotten on their skin if their vehicles had mistakenly been hit by friendly fire rounds containing depleted
uranium. Attempts have been made to gather immunization logs from units that administered anthrax
vaccine to their troops, but did not record the vaccine in soldiers’ individual shot records. As a result of
these efforts, a substantial amount of information is now available that provides important insights into
the types, levels, and patterns of exposures likely encountered by Gulf War military personnel during
deployment.
There is also an extensive body of epidemiologic research that makes it possible to identify patterns of
health problems in Gulf War veterans and to evaluate associations between veterans’ health and their
deployment experiences across a broad spectrum of studies. In addition, a large number of toxicological
studies have been conducted in recent years that provide insights concerning biological effects of
exposures associated with the Gulf War. These have yielded extensive information on effects of
exposures that had previously not been known, and effects of combinations of exposures that had never
before been looked at.

Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures  59

The Committee used a standardized approach for evaluating available evidence related to psychological
stressors in theater and each of the other hazards of possible concern. Three major categories of evidence
were considered. First, the Committee reviewed what was known about the extent and patterns of
veterans’ exposure to each potential hazard. Second, the Committee reviewed the broad spectrum of
available scientific research to determine what was known, in general, about health effects of each
exposure. This included consideration of effects of exposures identified in epidemiologic and clinical
studies of human populations, and laboratory studies conducted in animal models. Third, the Committee
reviewed, in detail, results from the many studies of Gulf War veterans that assessed associations between
symptom complexes and the exposure in question.
The Committee found that epidemiologic research on Gulf War veterans, assessed across diverse study
designs and populations, provided clearer and more consistent findings than had previously been
assumed. When combined with what has been learned about exposure patterns in theater and findings
from toxicological research, a coherent picture emerged about the most likely causes of Gulf War illness.

60  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Psychological Stressors and the Health of Gulf War Veterans
Major BK, a career Army pilot who had passed 15 flight physicals in the 11 years prior to
deployment to the Gulf War began to feel increasingly ill in April 1991 but dismissed the
symptoms as related to the harsh desert environment. On May 8 he reported ‘violent nausea,
vomiting, diarrhea attack.’ On May 28, now back in Germany, he was admitted to a military
hospital with ‘cardiac arrhythmias, severely bleeding gums, cough with sputum production,
shortness of breath, severe fatigue, diarrhea, hair loss, skin rashes/lesions, and abdominal
discomfort.’ Military doctors diagnosed Major BK with ‘post traumatic stress.’ With severe
brain, nerve, heart and gastrointestinal problems but still being diagnosed with ‘somatoform
disorder’ he was given a discharge from the Army.
--1997 Congressional report on Gulf War Army pilot1684

Since soon after the Gulf War, when reports of poorly understood symptoms and conditions in veterans
first became widely known, the most prominent controversy to emerge was whether these illnesses were
the result of psychological factors or hazardous exposures during deployment. In those early years,
opinion camps formed on both sides of the issue. Both sides relied to a large extent on assumptions and
conjecture to support their views, with little scientific data to settle the debate. This is no longer the case,
17 years after Desert Storm. Hundreds of studies have explored population patterns of veterans’ health
problems, and provided important insights concerning their biological and psychological correlates.
Commentators have pointed out that it is somewhat artificial, perhaps even harmful, to label Gulf War
illness as being one or the other—psychiatric or medical.404,405,654 This is an important consideration in
relation to any health problem, including Gulf War illness, with all that has been learned in recent decades
about biological aspects of psychiatric illness and psychological aspects of medical conditions.23 But the
question of the essential nature of Gulf War illness remains an important one for veterans, who want to
know why they are ill, for clinicians and researchers working to identify useful treatments, and for policy
makers tasked with preventing similar problems in the future.
The “mental or physical” quandary has played out both on a national level and in the lives of individual
veterans seeking care for Gulf War illness whose healthcare providers, lacking objective information from
diagnostic tests, find their condition difficult to diagnose and treat. A survey of clinicians at two VA
medical centers in the Pacific Northwest found that mental healthcare providers were more likely to
consider Gulf War illness to have resulted from a chemical or infectious exposure, whereas general
internal medicine clinicians more often considered Gulf War illness a “mental disorder” attributable to
psychological factors.1282 Consequently, mental health clinicians were more likely to support biological
treatments for veterans’ conditions, and medical providers more often favored psychological
interventions. This supports the general impression conveyed by veterans that clinicians, unable to
adequately diagnose or treat Gulf War illness using tools from their own armamentaria, are sometimes
inclined to attribute symptoms and conditions to realms outside their own areas of expertise. This
scenario leaves both veterans and their providers with more questions than answers, and provides no clear
basis for providing rational treatment options.
Similarly, on the national level in the 1990s, little scientific information was available to shed light on the
nature and causes of Gulf War illness. When no single cause or biological explanation was readily
apparent, those who developed research programs and healthcare policy for ill Gulf War veterans largely
focused on psychiatric issues, likely assuming that Gulf War illness was the result of deployment stress.
In the intervening years, however, numerous scientific studies have been conducted that, in aggregate,
provide insights regarding the nature and causes of Gulf War illness. Most prominently, this research
consistently indicates that Gulf War illness is not the result of psychological trauma or stressors during
the Gulf War. This information can be used to focus Gulf War illness-related policy and research
questions more precisely on the causes and biological mechanisms underlying Gulf War illness.

Psychological Stressors and the Health of Gulf War Veterans  61

The word “stress” is used in a variety of contexts and carries diverse meanings in both scientific and lay
usage. In its review of scientific studies and other available information concerning the health of Gulf
War veterans, the Committee thought it important to underscore the distinction between (1) psychological
stressors, that is, stressful experiences that occurred during deployment, versus (2) stress-related
disorders, that is, psychiatric diagnoses or other persistent health problems that may result from trauma or
other psychological stressors during deployment. This distinction between the concept of “stress” as a
challenging experience and “stress” as a health outcome is often not apparent to casual observers. It can
be illustrated by the observation that “stressful” experiences (more precisely, psychological stressors)
might lead to the development of psychiatric conditions such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), so
would be considered the “cause” for those conditions, whereas PTSD or other psychiatric conditions
would be considered the “result” of stressors. More simply put, “stress” may cause PTSD but it is not the
same thing as PTSD.
The Committee reviewed research findings related to both psychological stressors and psychiatric
disorders in Gulf War veterans. Evidence concerning the degree to which psychological stressors in
theater are associated with Gulf War illness was reviewed in the same way as evidence related to other
deployment-related exposures. In addition, research on psychiatric disorders in Gulf War veterans was
reviewed in the same way as other health outcomes such as Gulf War illness, asthma, or cancer.
The central question in the mental-versus-physical Gulf War illness debate is “Why are veterans ill?” In
reviewing the extensive amount of research conducted to address this question, the Committee has found
that, of the many complex issues associated with understanding Gulf War illness, the evidence that
informs the “mental or physical” debate is the most voluminous, the most consistent, and the most
straightforward to interpret.
SSG CK reported: ‘While still in the Gulf I began experiencing symptoms that continue to this
day. I had difficulty remembering significant events that happened days earlier… my knees
and shoulders were especially painful and fatigue stayed with me constantly.’ After the war,
his symptoms worsened and included intestinal problems and headaches. He sought
treatment in 1992 from VA doctors who—without any physical exam—referred him to the
mental health clinic where he was diagnosed ‘PTSD’. ‘I reported blinding headaches with only
offers of aspirin, I reported memory loss…dismissed as stress.’
--1997 Congressional report on Gulf War Army Reservist1684

Traumatic Experiences and Psychological Stressors in the Gulf War
There is considerable information concerning the types of psychological stressors experienced by Gulf
War veterans during the war. It is one of the few areas for which “exposure” data were collected during
deployment. In 1990 and 1991, a team from Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (WRAIR)
conducted interviews and surveys of personnel in combat units at different periods during deployment to
assess sources of psychological stress and the proportion of troops affected.966 Both qualitative and
quantitative data were collected from thousands of individuals in multiple precombat and post combat
interviews and surveys. Overall, investigators found that the morale of troops was good, and commitment
to the mission was high. In the early months of deployment, the most common stressors related to
disruption of individuals’ normal lives at home and adaptation to their living circumstances in theater.
The most frequently-cited stressors during this period were “not having the opposite sex around” (69%),
flies (54%), lack of family contact (46%), and lack of privacy (43%).966
Stressors reported by members of these combat units during the combat period were more typical of those
expected in war. The most frequently reported stressors during that time were seeing an enemy soldier
killed or wounded (60%), being attacked by enemy fire (43%), and having a buddy wounded in action
(30%). Having a buddy killed in action was considered the most extreme stressor for those who
62  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

experienced it (9%). Data also indicated that personnel experienced much lower levels of combat-related
stress than they had anticipated prior to combat, owing largely to the short duration of the ground war and
the one-sided nature of the fighting. In fact, during interviews many personnel were said to have
expressed sympathy for their Iraqi prisoners, whose war fighting efforts had been so “utterly outclassed”
by the Americans.966 Unfortunately, these data did not allow assessment of whether stressors in theater
were associated with subsequent development of chronic multisymptom illness. But they did provide real
time data indicating that traumatic combat exposure put military personnel at increased risk for
developing PTSD.
Many epidemiologic studies have provided retrospective assessments of veteran-reported stressors during
deployment, ranging from severe trauma (e.g., witnessing deaths, sexual assault) to experiences that,
while stressful, would not ordinarily be considered traumatic (e.g., having a family problem during
deployment, uncertainty about the use of chemical weapons). Representative rates of veteran-reported
stressful experiences during deployment are provided in Table 1. Overall, about 30 percent of U.S. and
U.K. veterans report they had participated in combat. A higher proportion report hearing chemical alarms
sound or being in the vicinity of a SCUD missile, but only about 10 percent thought they had been
attacked by chemical weapons. Additional studies indicate that, overall, psychological stressors were
reported at lower rates in Navy and Air Force veterans than in samples that included all branches of
service.241,1124
Table 1. Psychological Stressors Reported by U.S. and U.K. Gulf War Veterans
U.S. National
Survey751

U.K. National
Survey1698

Heard chemical alarms

66 %

71 %

SCUD missile explosion within 1 mile

43 %

32 %

Participated in combat

27 %

32 %

Witnessed death

26 %

19 %

Experienced a chemical/nerve gas attack

10 %

9%

Sexually assaulted

1%

Health Effects of Psychological Stressors
It has long been observed that psychologically stressful experiences, most prominently those associated
with acute trauma or significant sustained distress, can lead to different types of health problems—
psychiatric illness, psychological symptoms, and biological changes that affect different bodily
systems.23,247,801 A 2000 report prepared by the RAND National Defense Research Institute for the
Department of Defense provided an excellent summary of the extensive research literature in this area,
with special attention to information available on Gulf War veterans at that time.969 Among other
findings, the report summarizes information indicating that stress-related symptoms and psychiatric
difficulties typically appear soon after the traumatic experience but can take longer, sometimes decades,
to emerge. Psychological problems related to time-limited stressful events are generally short-lived,
typically disappearing within six to 18 months, but can last longer in some individuals. The RAND report
concluded that a limited amount of evidence suggested a link between stressful exposures in theater and
PTSD in Gulf War veterans, with less evidence regarding other psychiatric disorders. The report also
indicated that few studies had directly assessed associations between stressful experiences in the Gulf

Psychological Stressors and the Health of Gulf War Veterans  63

War and the subsequent development of chronic somatic health problems. As a result, the report
concluded that “it is inappropriate to rely upon stress exposure as a default explanation for the myriad
health problems reported by Gulf War veterans” and that it is “equally inappropriate to assume that stress
played no role.”969
Animal studies evaluating the interaction of stress with Gulf War exposures. In the past
decade, concerns have been raised about the potential for psychological and/or physiological stressors to
have interacted with, and perhaps exacerbated, effects of chemical exposures encountered by Gulf War
veterans. Attention was drawn to this issue over a decade ago by research indicating that stress and
adrenergic stimulation increased the biological effects of pyridostigmine bromide (PB) in mice.227,460
Ethical considerations prohibit studies of the effects of most toxic exposures in humans, so nearly all
research on interactions between stress and Gulf War-related exposures has been done in animal models.
Results of these studies should be applied to the human situation with caution, however, due to limitations
in the comparability of war-related human stressors to stressors used in animal research. In humans, for
example, stressful experiences can be predominantly of a psychological (e.g., trauma, emotional
challenge, mental stress) or physical nature (e.g. physical exertion, extreme temperatures) but in animals
this distinction is often not possible.
Stress and the effects of pyridostigmine bromide. In 1996, a study conducted by Israeli investigators
reported that mice subjected to an intense stressor, forced swimming, had a strikingly enhanced brain
response to PB compared to unstressed mice.460 Under normal conditions it was generally believed that
PB does not cross the blood brain barrier and very high doses are required to affect a marked decrease in
brain acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity. But this study reported that in stressed mice, just one one
hundredth the dose of PB was required to cause a 50 percent reduction in brain AChE activity, compared
to unstressed mice. Researchers suggested that stressful conditions may have allowed PB to cross the
blood brain barrier.
This unexpected finding raised a great deal of attention and concern, prompting additional research
related to the potential for stress to alter effects of PB and other Gulf War-related exposures. The largest
number of studies were done to evaluate the hypothesis raised by the Israeli study, that is, that stress
enhances central nervous system effects of PB. Multiple studies failed to support the Israeli study,
finding that stressors of various types and intensities did not cause PB to cross the blood brain barrier or
reduce AChE activity in the brain.519,857,1394,1414,1444,1539
Other studies that addressed different questions related to specific chemical or regional responses, have
found that stress may interact with PB in causing central nervous system effects. Studies from the East
Orange, New Jersey, VAMC found that stressed rats treated with PB had significantly reduced levels of
AChE activity in the basal forebrain and striatum but not in other brain regions.115,116 A 2005 study from
France reported that a combination of stressors led to elevated levels of circulating glucocorticoids and
associated increases in serotonin (5-HT) in several regions of the brain. Concurrent administration of PB
at dosages similar to those used in the Gulf War resulted in increased levels of the serotonin metabolite 5HIAA in additional brain regions, as well as increased dopamine levels in the striatum/hippocampus.1528
In addition, researchers from Wright State University School of Medicine demonstrated a significant
interactive effect between PB and stress on autonomic function, as reflected in enhanced heart rate
variability and baroreflex sensitivity.714 The combination of low-dose PB and exercise stress has also
been shown to decrease plasma levels of butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) and muscle AChE levels, and to
increase indicators of oxidative stress in peripheral muscle.658,703,1442
Interaction of stress with multiple combined exposures. Studies evaluating the effects of stress in
combination with two or more Gulf War-related exposures of potential concern, including PB, have
consistently found this combination to have greater effects than either stress or chemicals alone.

64  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Neurotoxicologists at Duke University have conducted extensive research evaluating interactive effects of
Gulf War-related exposures using protocols designed to parallel levels actually encountered by Gulf War
veterans in theater, in the presence and absence of stress. This has included studies of the combined
effects of low-level exposures to PB, permethrin, and DEET together—both with and without concurrent
exposure to a moderate level of restraint stress. Results indicated that combined exposure to PB, DEET,
and permethrin, in combination with stress, produced disruption of the blood brain barrier and neuronal
cell death in four specific brain regions—the cingulate cortex, the dentate gyrus, the thalamus, and the
hypothalamus.6 The combination of chemicals plus stress also produced reduced AChE activity in the
forebrain. These effects were not observed with either stress or low-dose chemicals alone. A second
report indicated that, in areas of the brain where there was no apparent disruption of the blood brain
barrier, AChE activity was decreased in the midbrain, brainstem, and cerebellum. Significant neuronal
cell death and evidence of glial cell activation were also observed in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus.
Again, these changes were observed only following combined exposure to stress and low-level exposure
to the three chemicals, and not as a result of stress or chemicals alone.3
Studies from Southern Illinois University have reported that exercise stress, when combined with both PB
and low-dose sarin, reduced levels of neurotoxic esterase (NTE), an enzyme that metabolizes neurotoxic
chemicals) in the cerebral cortex, spinal cord, and sciatic nerve. This combination was also found to
increase lipid peroxidation and reduce AChE activity in skeletal muscle.658
A limited number of studies have evaluated the potential for other types of Gulf War exposures to interact
with stress-related changes in animal models. A recent study from Great Britain demonstrated that
differing combinations of vaccines and PB did not produce peripheral indicators of an enhanced stress
response or impaired immune function.632 A study from the Boston University School of Medicine,
however, suggested that if PB and vaccines do interact with stress, the effects may more likely be
observed in the brain than in peripheral immune parameters. The Boston study found that production of
stress-activated kinases in the mouse brain was significantly enhanced and prolonged by immunization
with KLH, a vaccine analog, and that these effects were further enhanced by PB.1752 Researchers
concluded that the combined effects of stress, vaccines, and PB may produce neuroinflammatory damage
in the brain.
There is little indication that stress potentiates effects of depleted uranium or exposure to
organophosphate pesticides.727 Multiple studies have reported that stress does not enhance effects of
depleted uranium (DU) on the brain or on reproduction.35,97,98,125,906,1343 On the contrary, research
conducted at the University of Florida suggested that stress may increase clearance of DU from the
brain, thereby ameliorating its effects.97-99 Studies have also demonstrated no, or only limited
interactive effects between various stressors and organophosphate insecticides in animal
models.576,728,1244,1393
Human studies: Stress and Gulf War-related chemical exposures. Several studies have
evaluated effects of stress, in combination with relatively low doses of Gulf War-related exposures, in
humans. Reports on American and Israeli soldiers who used PB during the Gulf War indicated that side
effects were greater than had been predicted by clinical studies, and hypothesized that taking PB during
wartime, under stressful conditions, may enhance PB’s potential to cause biological side effects.781,1396
Clinical studies involving healthy subjects had not found heat stress or physical exercise to exacerbate
symptoms or significantly alter physiological or cognitive performance in relation to PB.53,411,1386 More
recently, a clinical trial demonstrated that one hour stress sessions that included both exercise and mental
stressors had minimal or no effects on physical and cognitive performance following exposure to
permethrin, DEET, and PB. Chemical exposures occurred over a 24 hour period, at dosages similar to
those currently directed by military policy.1323 Plasma PB levels were found to be significantly elevated
during and immediately after stress sessions, but were comparable to unstressed subjects within three
hours.

Psychological Stressors and the Health of Gulf War Veterans  65

Taken together, human and animal studies indicate that extreme and/or sustained stressful experiences can
precipitate short term somatic health problems as well as sustained psychiatric illness. There is no
evidence indicating whether more moderate stressors, of limited duration, is associated with the
development of the types of symptom complexes associated with Gulf War illness, particularly symptoms
that persist for an extended period—17 years—after cessation of the stressful experience. Questions also
remain concerning the potential for stressors in theater to have altered or amplified the biological effects
of some chemical exposures encountered in the Gulf War. Early suggestions that stress allows PB to
enter the brain through a general disruption of the blood brain barrier have not been supported, but more
recent studies have suggested that stress may exacerbate effects of PB in more delineated ways, for
example, enhancing its effects on autonomic regulation. Animal studies have also demonstrated
biological effects resulting from stress in conjunction with combined chemical exposures—effects that
exceed those of chemicals or stress alone. Human studies that have evaluated effects of stress in relation
to low-level exposure to PB, permethrin, and DEET for short periods have found no significant effects on
cognitive or physical performance.
The Gulf War involved a complex mix of extreme and less extreme stressors of relatively short duration,
in combination with diverse chemical exposures in a unique environment. Neither general studies from
human populations nor animal studies provide evidence that can specifically determine whether
psychological stressors experienced during the Gulf War are responsible for the types of chronic symptom
complexes that constitute Gulf War illness. As with other wartime exposures, it is important not to
assume that because psychological stressors might have adverse health effects that they actually did so in
a large proportion of Gulf War veterans and are responsible for Gulf War illness. A more complete
understanding of the connection between Gulf War-related stressors and the health of Gulf War veterans
requires consideration of the many studies of Gulf War veterans that have specifically evaluated this
relationship.
Research on the Health of Gulf War Veterans in Relation to Psychological Stressors
Symptoms, symptom complexes, and Gulf War multisymptom illness. As detailed in
Appendix A-8, a large number of epidemiologic studies have provided information on many different
types of psychological stressors that Gulf War veterans experienced in theater, and the degree to which
those stressors are associated with chronic symptoms and multisymptom illness. Similar to other
exposure-illness assessments, many of these studies provided results only from preliminary analyses, that
is, analyses that did not consider confounding effects of other exposures during deployment. The most
valid and informative results were provided by studies that determined independent associations between
stressful experiences and health outcomes, while controlling for effects of other deployment-related
exposures.
As shown in Appendix A-8, results of preliminary analyses frequently indicated that psychologically
stressful experiences in theater were associated with increased rates of chronic symptomatic illness. In
these analyses, symptomatic illness was associated with a variety of extreme and less extreme
psychological stressors, for example, being sexually assaulted during deployment,752 seeing someone
killed or dismembered,527,1264 coming under fire1124,1264,1507,1698 and reports of family problems back
home.1124
In contrast, when analyses controlled for effects of other exposures during deployment, studies
consistently found that psychological stressors were not significantly associated with Gulf War illness.
Diverse stress-related variables assessed in six different Gulf War veteran populations, were consistently
not identified as significant risk factors for Gulf War illness, when effects of other exposures were
considered. This included extreme stressors, such as being in combat or seeing dead bodies,241,527,1124

66  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Table 2. Participation in Combat as a Risk Factor for Chronic Symptoms
and Multisymptom illness in Gulf War Veterans
Unadjusted
Association

Association Adjusted
For Other Exposures

7,971 U.K.
Correlation of combat with seven
Gulf War vets symptom domains, overall
symptom severity, peripheral
neuropathy, widespread pain

Not reported

None significant

3,831 Navy
Seabees

Combat as a risk factor for studydefined Gulf War illness

OR = 2.6*

Not significant

Combat duty in relation to severe
or mild-moderate CMI

Not significant

Not significant

Coming under attack in relation to
severe or mild-moderate CMI

OR (severe) = 2.4*
OR (mild-moderate) = 1.1

OR (severe) = 1.2
OR (mild-moderate) = 0.7

Study

Sample

Cherry241
2001

Gray527
2002

Nisenbaum1124 1,002 Air
2000
Force vets

Combat Association Evaluated

Abbreviations: OR = odds ratio, CMI = chronic multisymptom illness464
* = statistically significant

and less acute stressors, such as having family problems during deployment.1124 Only one stress related
variable in one study was significantly associated with Gulf War illness after controlling for effects of
other wartime exposures. The large study of Navy Seabees used two different modeling approaches to
assess associations between stressors and Gulf War illness. “Seeing someone killed” was reported to be
modestly associated with Gulf War illness (OR = 1.6) in one model but not the other.527
Although not listed as a “psychological stressor” in Appendix A-8, several studies indicated that variables
related to chemical weapons exposures were significantly associated with multisymptom illness, after
controlling for effects of other exposures.564,1124,1239 As will be described in detail in a later section,
chemical alarms and other indicators of possible chemical weapons exposures were fairly common during
the Gulf War. There are many uncertainties, however, related to who was actually exposed to low levels
of chemical agents and where. Veterans’ ability to know whether or not they had been exposed to
chemical weapons is especially problematic. Reported associations between Gulf War illness and
veteran-reported chemical weapons exposures might reflect effects of psychological stress, chemical
exposure, both, or neither. It is not possible to disentangle psychological effects related to concern about
chemical exposures from physical effects that might relate to actual exposure. Associations between Gulf
War illness and variables associated with chemical weapons exposures are therefore summarized
separately, in Appendix A-2, and considered in a later section of the report.
A consistent, but somewhat unexpected, finding is that serving in combat is not identified as a significant
risk factor for Gulf War illness, when effects of deployment exposures are considered. As shown in
Table 2, Gulf War veterans who report being in combat or coming under enemy attack during deployment
did not have elevated rates of chronic symptoms or multisymptom illness in any of the studies that
adjusted for effects of multiple exposures in theater.241,527,1124 Further, many studies that reported
unadjusted results, which typically over-identified exposure risk, also found no link between serving in
combat and multisymptom illness.161,564,697,752,1124,1802 The consistency of this finding across multiple
studies of different veteran populations, particularly studies that controlled for confounding by multiple
exposures, provides strong evidence that serving in combat during the Gulf War was not a cause of Gulf
War illness. This is an important observation, since interviews with Gulf War veterans during
deployment and after their return from theater indicate that combat-related events were their most
stressful experiences.966,969

Psychological Stressors and the Health of Gulf War Veterans  67

The lack of association between combat and multisymptom illness parallels general findings from the
broader range of studies of psychological stressors in theater. Taken together, these studies consistently
indicate that psychological stressors during deployment were not risk factors for Gulf War illness.
Possible exceptions may include veterans who were sexually assaulted during deployment. This severe
stressor was associated with a high risk (OR = 8.3) for a unique symptom complex in one study750 but was
not evaluated in adjusted analyses. In addition, one study reported that seeing someone killed in theater
was mildly associated with Gulf War illness using one modeling method, but not another. 527
Results from these studies also provide an excellent example of how epidemiologic studies that do not
adequately account for effects of multiple exposures during deployment routinely misidentify risk factors
for Gulf War illness. This is well illustrated by the apparent association of Gulf War illness with several
psychological stressors in studies that did not consider effects of other exposures, as opposed to consistent
findings that psychological stressors are not risk factors for Gulf War illness in studies that did adjust for
effects of other exposures. As previously described, studies have consistently found that Gulf Warrelated exposures are highly correlated with one another and cluster in groups.161,241,458,1466 These data
suggest that some personnel who experienced the most extreme levels of psychological stressors during
the war (e.g., being in combat, seeing casualties, witnessing deaths) would also have more frequently had
other exposures that were most prominent in combat areas such as the use of pyridostigmine bromide,
smoke from oil well fires, and spent depleted uranium munitions.
Psychiatric conditions in relation to psychological stressors in theater. In addition to Gulf
War illness, a limited number of diagnosed conditions have been associated with service in the 1990-1991
Gulf War. Psychiatric conditions have been evaluated in more studies of Gulf War veterans than any
other type of diagnosis.969,1488 These studies have consistently found that veterans who served in the Gulf
War have higher rates of psychiatric conditions, prominently posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), than
era veterans who did not serve in the war. The Gulf War, although brief, was like other hostile
deployments in a number of important respects. Hard fought battles resulted in casualties, death, and
trauma for some American soldiers in the war zone. Some troops returned from Desert Storm with
psychological wounds that are slow to heal. The actual and expected consequence of the Gulf War, as
with other wars, is that returning veterans have higher rates of psychiatric conditions than veterans who
did not serve in war. But it might also be expected that, given the short duration and decisive victory of
the 1991 Gulf War, rates of psychiatric conditions in Gulf War veterans would be lower than rates found
after other wars.
In contrast to the lack of association between Gulf War illness and psychological stressors in theater,
studies have consistently found that Gulf War veterans who experienced more extreme stressors during
deployment have higher rates of PTSD.80,501,746,753,855,1195,1456,1480,1729 For example, a report on a small
cohort of Gulf War veterans referred for psychiatric evaluation as part of the CCEP indicated that
veterans who reported combat-related stressors (direct combat, wounded in action, witnessed casualties,
witnessed SCUD attacks, chemical alarms) were significantly more likely to be diagnosed with PTSD
than those who did not.855 Similarly, personnel tasked with grave registration duty during the war were
found to have an extremely high rate of PTSD (48%) six months after their return.1519,1520 The rate of
PTSD was also extremely high (49%) among Gulf War veterans who reported being sexually assaulted
during deployment.746
In more representative samples, findings from both the U.S. National Survey of Gulf War era veterans
and the Iowa Gulf War study indicate that veterans who participated in combat were significantly more
likely to have PTSD than those who were not in combat.103,746,753 There is also evidence of a doseresponse effect between wartime stressors and the development of PTSD. This includes findings from a
large study of Australian Gulf War veterans indicating that military personnel who experienced
intermediate levels of deployment stressors had four times the rate of PTSD of veterans with minimal
deployment stress, and those with the highest level of stressors had 14 times the rate of PTSD.674

68  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Table 3. Prevalence of Clinically Diagnosed Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
in Gulf War and Nondeployed Gulf War Era Veterans
PTSD Prevalence
Study

Sample

PTSD Measure

Gulf War
Veterans

Nondeployed
Veterans

Population-based samples
Blanchard142
Toomey1548

2,189 U.S. vets

CIDI
CAPS

3.3 %
6.2 %

2.0 %
1.1 %

Ikin674

2,758 Australian vets

CIDI

5.1 %

1.7 %

Wolfe1803

252 U.S. Army vets

CAPS, SCID

5.4, 7.2 %

0%

Engel408

21,232 U.S. vets in CCEP

Clinical diagnosis

5.6 %

VA1651

70,385 U.S. vets in VA Registry Clinical diagnosis

3.8 %

3,233 in U.K. MAP

12.0 %

Gulf War Registries

879

Lee

Clinical diagnosis

Abbreviations: CCEP = DOD Comprehensive Clinical Evaluation Program, MAP = British Medical Assessment Program, CIDI =
Composite International Diagnostic Interview, CAPS = Clinical Assessment of PTSD, SCID = Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R

Findings from the U.S. national survey indicate that PTSD rates in Gulf War era veterans increased across
six levels of stressor intensity, ranging from three percent among veterans with little or no deploymentrelated stress, to 22 percent among veterans who reported the greatest number of combat-related
stressors.753
How many Gulf War veterans have PTSD? Rates of PTSD have been assessed in multiple studies
of Gulf War veterans. Overall, identified PTSD rates are generally below 10 percent in population-based
samples of Gulf War veterans but are somewhat variable, with differences related to the type of PTSD
assessment done and the measures used.969 Table 3 summarizes results of studies that have assessed
PTSD using clinical evaluations, the preferred and most reliable method of diagnosing PTSD.688 As
shown, estimates of PTSD prevalence among Gulf War veterans who were clinically evaluated are
surprisingly consistent. In U.S. Registry and two population-based samples that included all service
branches, PTSD rates in clinically-evaluated veterans range from 3.3 to 6.2 percent, with modestly higher
rates (5.4%, 7.2 %) in two small cohorts of Army Gulf War veterans.1803 The prevalence of PTSD in
veterans participating in Gulf War registries would normally be expected to exceed rates from population
studies of Gulf War veterans, since most veterans who request evaluation in Gulf War registries have
health concerns. This was not the case in the U.S. CCEP but may explain, in part, why the rate of
diagnosed PTSD in the U.K. Ministry of Defence’s registry, the Medical Assessment Program (MAP),
was higher than in any other clinically evaluated sample of Gulf War veterans.879
Because clinical evaluation was not practical in most of the large Gulf War epidemiologic studies, PTSD
prevalence was typically estimated using screening instruments that rely on symptom checklists. As
shown in Table 4, PTSD estimates from these studies were more variable, yielding both higher and lower
rates than clinically evaluated samples. The variability in PTSD rates reflected in the table appears to
result, in part, from the methods and instruments used. For example, when the PTSD Checklist was used
in the U.S. National Survey of Gulf War era veterans the estimated PTSD rate of 10.1 percent753 was
three times higher than the 3.3 percent rate obtained when a subset of those veterans was clinically
Psychological Stressors and the Health of Gulf War Veterans  69

Table 4. Prevalence of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Assessed by Questionnaire
in Population Studies of Gulf War and Nondeployed Gulf War Era Veterans
PTSD Prevalence
Sample

PTSD Measure/cutoff

Gulf War
Veterans

Nondeployed
Veterans

3,695 Iowa vets

PTSD Checklist > 50

1.9 %

0.8 %

6,552 Canadian vets

PTSD symptoms

2.1 %

0.6 %

1,767 U.S. vets

CIDI (telephone interview)

3.4 %

0.9 %

1,090 vets in Air Guard unit

Mississippi Scale > 89

6.8 %

1.7 %

McKenzie

2,791 Australian vets

PTSD Checklist > 50

7.9 %

4.6 %

Stretch1503

4,334 PA, HI vets

WRAIR algorithm

8.6 %

1.6 %

Kang

20,917 U.S. vets

PTSD Checklist > 50

10.1 %

4.9 %

Unwin1698

5,177 U.K. vets

Selected questions from
Mississippi Scale

13.2 %

4.1 %

Study
Barrett103
Goss Gilroy

511

Fiedler436
Holmes

620
1003

753

Abbreviations: Mississippi Scale = Mississippi Scale for Combat-Related PTSD, CIDI = Composite International Diagnostic Interview,
WRAIR = Walter Reed Army Institute of Research algorithm for determining PTSD

evaluated.142 Similarly, the large population survey of British Gulf War veterans estimated PTSD
prevalence at 13.2 percent1698 based on questions selected from the Mississippi Scale. Later clinical
evaluation of a subset of those veterans, however, identified a PTSD rate of only three percent in the most
disabled subgroup and one percent in Gulf War veterans that were not disabled.699
It is important to point out, in this regard, that the validity of using screening tests such as the Mississippi
Scale for PTSD and PTSD Checklist to identify PTSD rates in Gulf War veterans has been
questioned.553,688 A number of symptoms included in these instruments, such as sleep disturbances and
memory problems, parallel symptoms associated with Gulf War illness. The number of PTSD cases
identified using these checklists depends on the cut-off score used by investigators.1805 Cut-off scores
have varied in different studies, and no validation studies have determined the optimal use of PTSD
screening instruments in Gulf War veterans.553,555,1805 As a result, PTSD case ascertainment based on
these checklists may overestimate PTSD rates, particularly in symptomatic Gulf War veterans who may
or may not have problems resulting from intense psychological stressors.
Even in light of the potential for over diagnosing PTSD and the variability of prevalence estimates,
identified rates of PTSD in Gulf War veterans are generally low—lower than rates reported in veterans of
previous and current wars. The rate of PTSD in Gulf War veterans is more comparable to that in the U.S.
adult population, reported to be five percent in males, and eight percent overall.799 In studies of Vietnam
veterans estimates of PTSD prevalence are also variable, as well as controversial,1008 but have generally
ranged between 15 and 30 percent.223,352,844,845,1159,1834 Substantially higher PTSD rates are found in
cohorts of combat veterans and former prisoners of war.384,1138,1517
Rates of PTSD and psychiatric illness are beginning to be reported for U.S. military personnel returning
from current deployments in Iraq and Afghanistan. Studies have indicated that PTSD may not become
apparent in veterans for months or even years after their return from the war zone, so actual rates may not
be known for some time.127,530,1048,1456,1803 Combat and traumatic experiences for U.S. personnel in the
current Iraq War have been more widespread and more intense than in the 1991 Gulf War,447 with one

70  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

survey indicating that 93 percent of U.S. veterans in combat units reported being shot at during
deployment and 95 percent reported seeing dead bodies.614 Not surprisingly, studies also indicate that
psychiatric problems are more prevalent in returning veterans.447 Recent studies have reported that 35
percent of Iraq War veterans accessed mental health services within a year of returning from the war, 17
percent of returning Army combat veterans have PTSD, and that between 20 and 42 percent of OIF
personnel screened longitudinally are identified by clinicians as having a mental health
problem.613,616,1048,1380
Other psychiatric conditions affecting Gulf War veterans. Research studies have also evaluated
rates and population patterns of psychiatric disorders other than PTSD in Gulf War veterans. Several
have reported that, like PTSD, rates of other psychiatric conditions are significantly associated with
psychological stressors that occurred during deployment.139,674,1195,1728 PTSD commonly co-occurs with
conditions such as depression and generalized anxiety disorder.450,799,1156,1834 Like PTSD, both depression
and anxiety disorders occur at higher rates in Gulf War veterans than in nondeployed era veterans, with
somewhat variable prevalence estimates. Low rates of both conditions were diagnosed in Gulf War
veterans evaluated in the U.S. CCEP (3.0% depression, 0.4% anxiety disorder) and the U.K. MAP
program (3% depression, 1% anxiety disorder).408,879 Relatively low rates were also reported in the Ft.
Devens cohort (6.6% depression, 0.8% anxiety disorder).1803 Higher estimates for rates of depression and
anxiety disorder, each from one study, come from national samples that used the CIDI structured
interview to identify cases. The U.S. National Gulf War era study reported that eight percent of Gulf War
veterans had major depression, and 21 percent had anxiety disorders.142 Nearly reversed rates come from
a second national sample that administered the CIDI by telephone interview (15% depression, 6% anxiety
disorder).436 Variability in these estimates may be a function of the measures used, since both studies that
reported higher rates of these conditions in Gulf War veterans used the CIDI, and also found relatively
high rates of psychiatric disorders in nondeployed era veterans.
Relationship of postwar psychiatric Illness to chronic symptoms and multisymptom
illness. There has been an extensive amount of scientific research conducted on the psychological
sequelae of war, including factors associated with persistent psychiatric morbidity in some
veterans.1518,1729 It has long been observed that veterans and others with psychiatric conditions,
particularly PTSD, experience somatic symptoms at higher rates than individuals with no psychiatric
illness.616,1468,1710 Conversely, people with chronic medical conditions are often reported to have higher
rates of psychiatric illness than those who are medically well. For example, the prevalence of major
depression in people age 15 to 54 in the U.S. was estimated to be seven percent in 2002.798 Major
depression is more common in patients with chronic illness, affecting about 15 percent of cancer
patients,640 15-30 percent of patients with multiple sclerosis,249,1177 and 20-40 percent of Parkinson’s
disease patients.300,1134,1423
This phenomenon has been well documented in studies of Gulf War veterans. Multiple studies have
reported that Gulf War veterans with PTSD have higher rates of self-reported symptoms than veterans
without PTSD.88,103,407,850,1741,1803 For example, in a population-based sample of Iowa Gulf War era
veterans, investigators report that veterans with PTSD endorse significantly more symptoms than veterans
without PTSD in a broad range of categories. This occurred in both Gulf War and nondeployed era
veterans with PTSD103 and parallels what is known about veterans from other eras—that veterans with
PTSD typically experience more symptoms than veterans with no psychiatric disorders.117,1834 Several
studies have also reported this association from the opposite perspective, that is, that Gulf War veterans
with multisymptom illness have higher rates of PTSD and depression than veterans without
multisymptom illness.142,449,699,1496
The largest national study of U.S. Gulf War veterans found that six percent of Gulf War veterans with
multisymptom illness had PTSD, compared to two percent of Gulf War veterans without multisymptom
illness.142 This relative excess was also seen in nondeployed era veterans with multisymptom illness.

Psychological Stressors and the Health of Gulf War Veterans  71

Other studies have reported both higher and lower rates of psychiatric diagnoses in Gulf War veterans
with multisymptom conditions. For example, no cases of PTSD were identified among veterans with any
of three defined symptom syndromes in the Texas study of Gulf War veterans from a Navy Seabees
battalion.565 In the Fort Devens cohort, Army veterans with the highest number of symptoms also had
elevated rates of psychiatric disorders – 14 percent had PTSD and 15 percent had depression. Still, the
large majority of the highly symptomatic veterans, 73 percent, had neither depression nor PTSD.1803
Similarly, a clinical study of British Gulf War veterans indicated that, in the subset of veterans with the
highest degree of disability, three percent had PTSD and 24 percent had any psychiatric disorder—
findings similar to those for disabled veterans who had not deployed to the Gulf War. Seventy-six
percent of ill Gulf War veterans in this population had no identifiable psychiatric disorder.699
Studies indicating that Gulf War veterans with multisymptom conditions have higher rates of psychiatric
conditions and that veterans with psychiatric disorders report more symptoms are consistent with similar
findings from other civilian and veteran populations affected by chronic illness. They are important in
underscoring the need to identify subgroups of ill veterans with conditions that may benefit from
established treatments. They do not, however, support assumptions that Gulf War illness was caused by
deployment stressors or that Gulf War illness is a psychiatric disorder. Studies of Gulf War veterans
consistently indicate that Gulf War illness was not caused by psychological stressors during the war.
And, although some veterans with Gulf War illness also have psychiatric disorders, the large majority do
not.
From a clinical perspective, it is important that those ill Gulf War veterans who have diagnosable
psychiatric conditions are identified and appropriately treated.405,407 There is little evidence, however, that
standard treatments for mood disorders will benefit the broader range of symptoms associated with Gulf
War illness.427,1072,1358 And, given the consistency of findings that most veterans with Gulf War illness do
not have psychiatric conditions, it is also extremely important that clinicians not assume that diverse
undiagnosed symptoms affecting Gulf War veterans are primarily a psychiatric problem.
From a research perspective, the potential for confusion between undiagnosed multisymptom illness in
Gulf War veterans and diagnosable psychiatric disorders emphasizes the need for careful study design and
the use of rigorous methods in assigning psychiatric case status. It also underscores the need for careful
data analysis that considers possible confounding effects of concurrent conditions associated with
concurrent exposures during the war.
Epidemiologic studies consistently indicate that the etiology of Gulf War illness is very different from
that of PTSD. It is likely that veterans with Gulf War illness are distinct in multiple ways from veterans
with PTSD and other psychiatric conditions, as has been suggested by preliminary studies.435,502,864,1496 To
minimize confusing characteristics of Gulf War illness with those of psychiatric conditions, it is important
that Gulf War illness research studies distinguish subsets of veteran participants who have psychiatric
disorders, or limit study enrollment to Gulf War illness patients who do not have psychiatric disorders.
Summary. Psychological stressors and the health of Gulf War veterans. Although it is well
recognized that excess rates of multisymptom illness resulted from service in the 1990-1991 Gulf War,
the question of whether Gulf War illness was caused by hazardous exposures or psychological stressors
has long been debated. Early views that Gulf War illness was likely the result of deployment-related
stress were largely speculative, drawing on general information related to psychological and somatic
effects of sustained or severe stressors. Research studies of Gulf War veterans have not supported these
assumptions, however, consistently indicating that psychological stressors during deployment are not
significantly associated with Gulf War illness. Neither intense stressors, such as serving in combat, nor
less severe stressors evaluated in studies of Gulf War veterans are associated with higher rates of Gulf
War illness, when effects of other deployment exposures are considered.

72  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

General research related to the effects of stress in humans provides useful insights about the potential for
extreme and/or sustained stressors to precipitate short term somatic problems as well as sustained
psychiatric illness. Animal studies also raise the possibility that stressors may alter or amplify effects of
chemical exposures associated with Gulf War service. Some Gulf War veterans did experience trauma
and the kinds of intense psychological stressors common to other wars—being in combat, coming under
fire, witnessing death. Consequently, rates of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other psychiatric
conditions occur at higher rates in Gulf War veterans than era veterans who did not deploy to the Persian
Gulf theater. But overall, the impact of wartime trauma and stress were less extensive in the Gulf War
than in other wars and rates of PTSD and other psychiatric conditions are lower in Gulf War veterans than
in veterans of other wars.
Studies indicate that the large majority of Gulf War veterans with chronic multisymptom illness do not
have psychiatric disorders. It is therefore important that healthcare, research, and policy decisions
concerning ill Gulf War veterans not be based on unsupported assumptions that Gulf War illness is
primarily a psychiatric condition or that it was caused by psychological stressors during deployment.
However, some veterans with Gulf War illness are also affected by psychiatric disorders, and it is
important that those veterans are properly diagnosed and treated for those conditions.

Psychological Stressors and the Health of Gulf War Veterans  73

Recommendation
Evidence from multiple studies consistently indicates that Gulf War illness was not caused by
psychological stressors during the war and the large majority of ill Gulf War veterans do not have
psychiatric conditions. The Committee therefore recommends that federal funding for Gulf War illness
research not be provided for studies of posttraumatic stress disorder or other psychiatric conditions, or
studies that focus on psychological factors as the central cause of Gulf War illness.

74  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Kuwaiti Oil Well Fires and the Health of Gulf War Veterans
There were no less than three days when the smoke ‘hugged’ the ground, and turned the
sunlit, bright day into a dark of night. Myself and others traveled the ‘coastal highway’ from
Kuwait City down to Saudi Arabia on April 1st, 1991, and the petroleum-thickened air was so
impregnated that we choked on oil while breathing through our doubled-up scarves and we
were forced to stop and clear the raw petroleum off vehicle windshields and our goggles
constantly. At some points on the highway the oil-thickened air was so thick our vehicle
headlights could not penetrate the air further than 10-15 feet, and Marine escorts were
needed to walk on foot ahead of the vehicles to keep us on the highway.
–-Marine Corps Captain965

As the outcome of the U.S. and allied forces’ campaign became increasingly evident in February of 1991,
Iraqi forces set out to destroy Kuwait’s oil infrastructure as they withdrew from the region. Valves were
opened at the Sea Island oil terminal near Kuwait City, releasing large amounts of crude oil into the Gulf
of Kuwait.1689 Oil tankers moored in the area were ransacked and their cargo off-loaded into the waters.
At the same time, over 600 Kuwaiti oil wells were damaged or ignited. By the end of February, at the
peak of the oil well problem, an estimated 605 wells were on fire with another 46 gushing oil. Between
four and six million barrels of oil per day were either burned or spewed onto the sand,1621 creating plumes
of smoke and lakes of crude oil collecting on the ground.
Throughout this time, images of plumes of dense black smoke pouring from the oil wells were prominent
in newscasts, and medical and environmental scientists feared that exposure to the fires and smoke would
result in catastrophic acute and chronic health effects for exposed military personnel.1461,1621 After the
ceasefire, U.S. and international teams quickly arrived in Kuwait to assist in extinguishing the fires and
cleaning up the environmental disaster. The first oil well fire was extinguished by mid-June and, despite
expert predictions that it would take 2-3 years to extinguish all fires, the last open well was capped on
November 6, 1991.1621
Heavy exposure to smoke, oil, and other contaminants from the Kuwaiti oil well fires have long been
suspected causes of the diverse chronic symptoms affecting Gulf War veterans. The oil fires are unique
among Gulf War exposures, both with respect to their high public profile and because information is
available on measured levels of oil fire-related pollutants in theater. These measures have been used to
estimate the likely risk of diagnosed medical conditions resulting from oil fire smoke exposure but have
done little to shed light on the extent to which the Kuwaiti oil fires might have caused or contributed to
Gulf War illness.
Exposure to Oil Well Fires and Smoke During Gulf War Deployment
It was a Monday, the sky was so dark it was like night. People’s eyes were running with black
tears, your saliva was black, you had to have a bandana over your nose to breathe.
- Army Sergeant1608

At the time the oil well fires were at their peak, between 550,000 and 600,000 U.S. troops were present in
the Persian Gulf theater.1461 Although most military personnel experienced exposure to smoke from the
fires, the intensity and duration of exposure were highly variable. Many soldiers have reported that the
smoke was at times so thick that a sunlit bright day was turned into the dark of night. At times, troops
reported being soaked with unburned oil that rained from the sky. At other times, however,
environmental conditions were reported to be less severe. During more favorable weather conditions,

Kuwaiti Oil Well Fires and the Health of Gulf War Veterans  75

winds helped to rapidly dissipate the smoke, and plumes rose above ground level where the smoke no
longer posed noticeable difficulties for troops working in the area.1621
Epidemiologic studies indicate that 60-85 percent of U.S. and British Gulf War veterans report some
exposure to smoke from oil well fires during deployment,241,692,751,988,1239,1698 with exposure less common
among Air Force and Navy personnel.241,1124 The U.S. Army Environmental Hygiene Agency (USAEHA)
estimated that over 40 percent of U.S. troops were, at some time, within one mile of a burning
well.1586,1587 In addition, nearly one-third of soldiers have reported eating food contaminated with oil or
smoke.751 For troops located in areas of precipitating crude oil and dense ground-level smoke, little was
provided in the way of training or protective equipment. Protective measures for veterans in those areas
consisted mostly of tying scarves or shirts over their noses and mouths, and rolling down their sleeves to
cover exposed skin.1668,1669
Oil fire pollutants of possible concern. The hundreds of burning oil wells presented a complex
mix of potentially hazardous substances to those covered with oil or breathing the heavy black smoke.
The composition of crude oil varies by region and strata, but burning crude typically produces a smoke
composed of a mixture of particulates and gases that include carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide
(CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), oxides of nitrogen (NOX), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), ozone (O3),
various polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), acid aerosols, and soot.1461 Extensive analysis of the
Kuwaiti oil fire smoke found that the smoke contained the expected mixture of pollutants. In addition,
hydrogen sulfide (H2S), a major component of natural gas, was present at varying concentrations. The
most visible components of the mix were the particulate matter and carbonized particles (soot) that
formed the huge smoke plumes. The smoke contained other components, including small amounts of
various heavy metals such as nickel, vanadium, iron, aluminum, beryllium, cadmium, calcium, chromium,
arsenic, silicon, zinc, and lead, all present in crude oil as impurities.1621
Pollutants associated with combustion of crude oil have been the subject of extensive toxicological testing
as part of established U.S. and international environment and occupational safety programs. For some,
but not all pollutants, standards have been established that are intended to represent exposure levels that
can be experienced without increased risk of identified adverse effects. When inhaled or ingested at
sufficient concentrations and durations, many of these compounds have the potential to cause known
health effects, primarily acute and chronic respiratory conditions and cancers. However, little
occupational or animal research has been done to evaluate the potential for oil fire pollutants to cause a
constellation of chronic symptoms resembling Gulf War illness. Oil fire-related compounds have been
associated with some categories of chronic symptoms that affect Gulf War veterans. Particulate
exposures can cause the development of chronic respiratory symptoms1663 and VOCs and heavy metals
have the potential to cause neurological symptoms.1661 Carbon monoxide is highly toxic and exposure is
associated with a variety of symptoms such as fatigue, headache, confusion, nausea, and impaired vision
and coordination, some of which can persist for many years.1662
Environmental monitoring and measured pollutants. Widespread concern about the potential
for serious health effects from the burning oil wells prompted environmental monitoring efforts by
international agencies and organizations. Results of these monitoring efforts are summarized in Table 1.
As shown, environmental samples were collected by multiple teams, testing for a wide range of
potentially toxic pollutants. Early efforts to monitor air quality in the region were limited. During March
13-27, 1991, a U.S. Interagency Team measured particulates, SO2, PAHs, inorganic acids, VOCs, and
metals in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. These early assessments identified high particulate levels and SO2
levels that exceeded 24 hour standards at the Burgan Oil Field.1660 Later analyses determined that the
portable samplers utilized in this monitoring effort tended to underestimate levels of particulates of
inhalable size (10 micron diameter or smaller, or PM10).1337 The most extensive monitoring program was
undertaken by USAEHA, which was commissioned to assess levels of pollutants from oil fire emissions
in areas where most U.S. troops would be affected. The USAEHA program analyzed samples for more

76  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Table 1. Measured Air Pollutants in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, 1991
Monitoring
Agency/Team

Monitoring
Dates (1991)

Monitoring Locations

Pollutants Measured

Pollutants exceeding
applicable standards

Umwelt Bundesamt1692

Mar 3–Apr 27

Not described

SO2

None

U.S. Interagency Air
Assessment Team1660

Mar 13–27

15 locations in Kuwait,
3 in Saudi Arabia

SO2, VOCs, TSPs, H2S,
PAHs, metals, inorganic
acids, formaldehyde

TSPs in 12 of 28
measurements; SO2 at
Burgan oil field

King Fahd University of
Petroleum806

Mar – May

Dharan, Saudi Arabia

PM10, PAH, TSPs, lead,
nickel, vanadium, cadmium,
cobalt, copper

PM10; lead, cadmium,
cobalt in inhalable
particles

British Meteorological
Office717

Mar 22-Apr 2

7 flights through smoke
plume, 100 km from
Kuwait

SO2, O3, NOx

Peak SO2 levels

AIRPARIF1515

Mar 27-Apr 4

5 sites in and around
SO2, CO, NO, NO2, PAHs,
Kuwait City, 3 in oil fields VOCs, O3, TSPs

Average SO2 at 2 sites;
TSPs

Kuwait Environment
Protection Council849,1669

Apr–Jun

2 locations in Kuwait:
Kuwait City and Rega

SO2, H2S, CO, NO2, O3,
particulates

Particulates

Japan Environment
Agency1145,1621

Apr 28-May 5

4 locations in Kuwait

SO2, NO2

Peak SO2

U.S. Army Environmental
Hygiene Agency1586

May 5–Dec 3

6 locations in Kuwait,
4 in Saudi Arabia

VOCs, TSPs, PM10, metals, TSPs at all locations;
O3, PAHs, nitrates, SO4, NO, PM10 in some locations
NO2, SO2, acidic gases

Norwegian Institute for Air
Research1416

May 15-Jun 17 Umm Quasr, Iraq (100 km SO2, soot (particulates),
from largest oil field fires) PAHs

Soot

U.S. National Institute of
May 15
Standards and Technology1083

Al Maqwa oil field in
Kuwait

Particulates, PAHs

National Toxics Campaign
Fund1105

May 15-21

Al Jubayl, Saudi Arabia

1,4-dichlorobenzene, 1,21,4-dichlorobenzene in all
dichlorobenzene, diethyl
samples
phthalate, dimethyl phthalate,
napthalene

National Science
Foundation1104

May 16-Jun 12 Flights through smoke
plume

U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency,
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration1487,1669

Jul 28–Aug 8

Flights through plume,
SO2, SO4, VOCs, PAHs, CO2, None
ground samples at Kuwait CO, metals, particulates
City and near Al Wafra,
Al Burgan oil fields

Arabian Gulf University,
Bahrain950

Jul 31-Aug 4

Bahrain

O3, NOx, CO, SO2,
particulates

Particulates, 32 PAHs,
heavy metals

Particulates

Particulates; SO2 peak
levels occasionally
exceeded

Particulates, PAHs, metals
elevated over usual levels

Abbreviations: VOCs = volatile organic compounds, TSPs = total suspended particulates, PM10 = particulate matter 10 microns or smaller,
O3 = ozone, PAHs = polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, COx = oxides of carbon, NOx = oxides of nitrogen, SOx = oxides of sulfur

than 50 chemicals and compounds but, unfortunately, did not begin monitoring until May of 1991.1586 By
the time the USAEHA team arrived in theater, the “shamal” winds, strong northwesterly winds prevalent
in the region during the spring and summer, had begun to blow and had helped to dissipate the smoke
present at ground level.

Kuwaiti Oil Well Fires and the Health of Gulf War Veterans  77

Overall, results from environmental monitoring in the Kuwait theater provide a perspective in surprising
contrast to the environmental conditions described by soldiers serving in areas where oil fires were
burning. Measured levels of airborne particulates were excessive, but mean concentrations of VOCs,
PAHs, metals, O3, CO, SO2, NOx and lead in collected samples were much lower than initially
anticipated. Concentrations of these pollutants were consistent across studies, and maximum levels were
found to be comparable to those in suburban areas in the U.S, lower than levels in large urban centers, and
significantly lower than the U.S. recommended occupational exposure limits.1575,1587 In contrast, airborne
particulates were consistently found to be present at high levels at all monitoring sites. Particulate
concentrations frequently exceeded EPA National Ambient Air Quality Standard limits, and were much
higher than levels observed in the United States. In addition, several teams identified occasional excess
SO2 levels, and isolated findings of excess concentrations of heavy metals1337 and 1,4 dichlorobenzene.1669
Information provided by air monitoring efforts in theater was limited, however, to the time periods and
locations in which measurements were taken. For example, little information is available on measured
levels of particulates and chemical toxins in areas close to the burning wells, particularly in February and
March, before seasonal winds routinely dispersed the heavy black clouds of smoke near the ground. In
order to estimate oil fire pollutants encountered by service members in areas where no measurements
were taken, USAEHA utilized environmental monitoring data, meteorological data, and satellite imagery
to generate models of pollutant concentrations in all areas of theater throughout the period that oil fires
burned. Periods prior to the initiation of USAEHA monitoring were supplemented with monitoring data
from other agencies. These exposure models, in conjunction with the Department of Defense’s Gulf War
troop location databases, have been used to estimate oil fire smoke exposures in epidemiologic studies,
and for oil fire health risk assessments available to individual Gulf War veterans online at
https://gulfwarfires.apgea.army.mil.
Two sets of health risk assessments were created by the U.S. Army’s Center for Health Promotion and
Preventive Medicine (USACHPPM, formerly referred to as USAEHA). One represented health risks
associated with exposure to measured pollutant levels from all sources (including natural background
particulates, industrial and vehicle pollution, etc.). The second used modeled pollutant levels and
assessed risk only related to the excess pollution directly attributable to the burning oil fires.1575 In
addition, risk estimates were made for two broad categories of health outcomes: cancer and non-cancer
risk. Overall, the final risk assessments concluded that the potential for significant long-term adverse
health effects from the Kuwaiti oil fires was minimal, with exposures for all units below acceptable
hazard index limits established by EPA.1575 It is important to note, however, that this assessment relates
to diagnosable medical conditions and does not provide information directly related to the risk of
developing undiagnosed conditions, chronic symptoms, or symptom complexes. In addition, methods
used to compute health risks considered only the subset of pollutants for which established toxicity
coefficients were available.1575 Consequently, the potential effects of exposure to high levels of
particulates were not included in the health risk assessments. Oil exposure through ingestion of food or
water was considered to be unlikely and also not included in the models.
A 1998 RAND Report commissioned by the Department of Defense1461 also concluded that, even
assuming a worst-case scenario, concentrations of pollutants were below levels likely to cause known
health effects. Again, this assessment did not specifically address health questions related to Gulf War
illness. Particulate levels were noted to be extremely high in the region and the report suggested that this
might explain some of the respiratory complaints reported by veterans. The RAND report also pointed
out that little is known about health effects of simultaneous exposure to multiple contaminants, and called
for further investigation of this issue.1461 The 2002 Environmental Exposure Report on Oil Well Fires
from the Department of Defense generally concurred with conclusions of prior reports but identified three
areas that required further study: particulate matter exposures and related health effects, health risks
associated with dermal and inhalation exposures to “oil rain” during the Gulf War, and comprehensive
health risk assessments that take into account all oil fire-related pollutants of concern.1621

78  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Health Effects of Kuwaiti Oil Fire-Related Exposures
No published studies have specifically evaluated Gulf War veterans who experienced the most extreme
exposures to oil and smoke, that is, those in close proximity to burning oil wells in the early months of
1991. However, there are several reports on the health of U.S. civilian firefighters who came to Kuwait to
assist in extinguishing the oil well fires.312,413,461 These firefighters worked close-in for extended periods,
at the base of the fires, and wore no protective equipment aside from the occasional use of particle
masks.312,413,461
A 1992 study found that levels of DNA adducts, a biomarker for exposure to PAHs, were not elevated in
civilian firefighters in Kuwait, but that some firefighters reported symptoms of eye, nose and throat
irritation during their time in theater.312 In a separate study, blood VOC levels—ethylbenzene, benzene,
xylene, toluene, and styrene—were significantly higher in a group of 40 civilian firefighters in the
Kuwaiti oil fields than in military personnel located twenty kilometers away.413 None of the firefighters
in the study required treatment for health conditions while working in the vicinity of the fires and there
were no lost work days due to illness.312 Dr. Gary Friedman, a Texas physician who evaluated a cohort of
civilian firefighters after their return from Kuwait, reported to the Committee that his follow-up
assessments through 1994 revealed no evidence of disease or illnesses with delayed onset, no indication
of lost time due to illness, and no unexpected compensation claims filed among these workers.461 In
particular, he had seen no evidence of multisymptom illnesses resembling Gulf War illness among these
firefighters.
The experience of professional firefighters working in the region is informative, but might not be wholly
generalizable to Gulf War veterans for two reasons. First, the exposure milieu for military personnel in
theater was distinct, involving exposure to oil fires in combination with other potentially hazardous
substances, as described in this report. Second, a healthy worker effect likely exists among professional
firefighters that would exclude individuals with particular susceptibilities to the types of exposures
associated with the Kuwaiti oil fires. Although military personnel, in general, also exhibit a high degree
of physical fitness, those serving in the region might have included individuals with greater vulnerability
to effects of oil, smoke, and particulates.
Reports based on hospital and clinic records have suggested that local populations in areas affected by oil
well fires may have experienced some adverse effects. For example, the number of visits to Kuwaiti
health clinics and emergency rooms due to respiratory conditions increased over prewar rates in the
months during and after the oil fires, peaking in April and declining thru September when many fires had
been extinguished.1158 No reports have provided information on the occurrence of symptoms or symptom
complexes similar to Gulf War illness in local populations.
In 2002 scientists at the Harvard School of Public Health, in collaboration with an international team of
investigators, initiated a project to assess the health effects of environmental exposures on the local
Kuwaiti population during and after the 1991 oil fires. This project, “Monitoring and Assessment
Program of Environmental Consequences of the Iraqi Aggression in Kuwait,” was commissioned by the
government of Kuwait.591 The project is ongoing, but investigators have reported that postwar mortality
rates were 20 percent higher among Kuwaiti adults who remained in Kuwait during the conflict,
compared to those who fled the region. Explanations for this mortality excess are unclear, and the
Committee looks forward to reviewing additional information to be provided by this project.349,592
Animal studies have provided very limited information on the toxicity of exposures related to the Kuwaiti
oil fires. One study compared pulmonary toxicity effects, in hamsters, of particulates collected downwind
from the Kuwaiti oil fires to particulates from the St. Louis area and found the two to be comparable.
Investigators concluded, however, that the substantially higher concentrations present in Kuwait remained
a concern.165 Another study evaluated respiratory tissues in feral cats collected in Kuwait eight months

Kuwaiti Oil Well Fires and the Health of Gulf War Veterans  79

after ignition of the oil wells. Accumulations of black sooty materials in 17 of 26 cats were described,
and minor cellular changes in bronchial and tracheal tissues.1056
Occupational studies of the effects of exposure to smoke and fuel combustion products.
Studies of health outcomes among individuals occupationally exposed to burning fires and fuel exhaust
may also provide insights relating to health effects potentially resulting from the Kuwaiti oil fires. The
direct applicability of such studies to the experiences of Gulf War veterans is limited by a number of
factors, however. Occupational studies typically identify health effects resulting from exposures
occurring over multiple years, as opposed to those lasting weeks or months as was the case for Gulf War
veterans during deployment. In addition, the physical and chemical constituents of smoke and other
exhaust products typically encountered by occupational cohorts would likely differ from those associated
with the Kuwaiti oil well fires.
A 2005 report from the Institute of Medicine (IOM) reviewed, in some detail, evidence on health
outcomes related to occupational exposure to combustion products such as fuel exhaust, wood smoke, and
their chemical constituents.684 The primary health outcomes considered were those commonly evaluated
in occupational cohorts—cancers, nonmalignant respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, and
reproductive outcomes. The IOM panel concluded that there is sufficient evidence to indicate a positive
association between exposure to combustion products and lung cancer and suggestive evidence of an
association between combustion products and other respiratory cancers and bladder cancer. This
represents one of the few conclusions from IOM’s Gulf War and Health series indicating sufficient
evidence of an association between any exposure and any health outcome. These conclusions do not
specifically address whether exposure to the Kuwaiti oil fires are likely to be related to cancer outcomes
in Gulf War veterans, for whom no elevation in cancers of the respiratory system or bladder have been
identified. More importantly, the IOM review provides little information on the more immediate question
of possible links between oil well fires and Gulf War illness, the health problem most prominently
associated with Gulf War service.
The Research Advisory Committee, in its review of the occupational literature, also found few studies
specifically relevant to the question of Gulf War illness. Studies of petroleum workers, potentially
exposed to many of the chemicals found in uncombusted Kuwaiti crude, have found that these workers
may be at increased risk for a number of cancer types, as previously described.541,542,898,1327,1354,1808 Studies
of urban firefighters have suggested that chronic exposure to smoke from burning structures may also be
associated with some cancers including multiple myeloma, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, and genitourinary
cancers.100,108,341,539,882 One small study of firefighters in India found these workers to experience
significantly higher rates of transient memory loss, burning sensations in the extremities, tingling/
numbness, and depression than a reference group, as well as elevated blood levels of epinephrine and
norepinephrine.1260
Studies Evaluating the Health of Gulf War Veterans in Relation to the Kuwaiti Oil Fires
At one point during the war, we were staying near the oil wells, and your uniform would be
completely covered with black, like soot all over you. Your arms were exposed, your food,
everything, your water where you took showers. It was constantly dark; there was no such
thing as daylight.
- Army Gulf War veteran716

Association of symptoms and multisymptom Illness with oil fire exposure. The largest
study that evaluated Gulf War veterans’ symptoms while they were still in theater was conducted by a
team of Navy epidemiologists in March of 1991, while the oil well fires were still burning.1687 That study

80  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

surveyed over 2,700 Marines in three groups, defined by the locations in which they served during the
preceding months. The group closest to the oil well fires for the longest period of time (about five weeks)
experienced significantly higher rates of respiratory symptoms (wheezing, cough, sore throat, runny nose)
and gastrointestinal symptoms (diarrhea, stomach cramps, nausea, and vomiting) than groups more distant
from the burning wells. An additional study evaluated symptoms among nearly 1,600 Army personnel
before, during, and three months following their service near Doha after the end of Operation Desert
Storm. Respiratory symptoms, rashes, and fatigue were generally increased in association with soldiers’
proximity to the oil well fires during the time soldiers were in Kuwait. All symptoms except cough had
resolved by one month post deployment.1203
Seventeen years after the war, the question of whether exposure to the Kuwaiti oil well fires is a likely
cause of the persistent symptoms of Gulf War illness can best be addressed by considering evidence from
studies of Gulf War veterans. Numerous epidemiologic studies have evaluated symptoms and
multisymptom illness in relation to veterans’ self-reported exposure to oil well fire smoke, although the
amount of detail evaluated with respect to duration and intensity of smoke exposure is highly variable.
Results of these studies are summarized in Appendix A-6. As shown, epidemiologic studies have
commonly reported elevated illness rates in relation to oil fire exposures using preliminary or crude
analyses, that is, analyses that do not account for effects of other exposures present in theater. Many
studies reported results of this type, suggesting associations between oil fire smoke and increased risk for
both symptoms524 and multisymptom illness up to nine years after deployment.527,692,752,1124,1264,1466,1698,1804
Several studies supported a possible dose-response effect, indicating that veterans who report more
prolonged exposure to oil fire smoke had higher rates of Gulf War illness than veterans exposed more
transiently.241,564,1466 Also of note, the U.S. National Survey of Gulf War veterans found that veterans
who reported consuming food contaminated with oil or smoke had a nearly 11-fold excess risk for the
unique neurological symptom complex identified by this study.752
As previously described, in complex exposure scenarios like the Gulf War theater, exposure risk estimates
based on unadjusted analyses often generate spurious results, due to the confounding effects of multiple
concurrent exposures. More informative and reliable results require analyses that adjust for effects of
other exposures in theater. The four studies that reported findings of this type in relation to oil fire
exposure produced mixed results. Two found that self-reported exposure to oil fire smoke was associated
with a significantly higher rate of symptoms and multisymptom illness,241,1804 although the excess risk
was modest. One of these studies also indicated a dose-response effect, with longer duration exposures
associated with higher symptom scores.241 In contrast, two studies reported that, after adjusting for other
exposures, multisymptom illness was not significantly elevated among veterans who reported exposure to
smoke from oil well fires.527,1124
Conflicting results from these studies cannot be conclusively explained. However, the dose-response
effect demonstrated by several studies suggests that study populations that included a higher proportion of
veterans who were closer to fires for longer durations would more likely have identified links between oil
smoke exposure and chronic symptoms. In fact, the two studies that reported significant, albeit modest,
associations between symptoms and oil fire exposure included predominantly Army personnel, while the
two studies that did not find this association included only Air Force and Navy personnel. The most
unexpected finding related to oil smoke exposure comes from the large Navy Seabees study. Using
USACHPPM models to estimate exposure to oil fire-related pollutants, the study found that veterans with
the highest modeled oil fire exposures had significantly lower rates of Gulf War illness.527
Taken together, epidemiologic studies do not provide consistent support for oil well fires as a prominent
risk factor for Gulf War illness. Just two of the four studies providing fully adjusted analyses indicated
that self-reported oil well smoke exposure was a statistically significant, but modest, risk factor for
multisymptom illness. But several studies suggested that the Kuwaiti oil well fires may have contributed

Kuwaiti Oil Well Fires and the Health of Gulf War Veterans  81

to the risk of developing Gulf War illness for veterans who experienced longer duration
exposures241,564,1466 and/or veterans in close enough proximity to have eaten oil-contaminated food.752
Diagnosed conditions potentially associated with oil well fire exposure. In addition to Gulf
War illness, several studies have indicated that Gulf War veterans, as a group, are significantly more
likely to have symptoms of or report being diagnosed with respiratory conditions such as asthma and
chronic bronchitis, compared to nondeployed era veterans.511,527,692,790,1476,1698 Although these studies
generally have found that less than 10 percent of all Gulf War veterans report these conditions, identified
rates are consistently about twice as high in Gulf War veterans as in nondeployed era veterans. In the
U.S. National Survey of Gulf War era veterans, Gulf War veterans did not report elevated asthma rates,
but did report significantly higher rates of bronchitis, emphysema, and “other lung conditions.”751
Clinical examination of a subset of study participants, however, did not find an excess of diagnosable
lung disease among Gulf War veterans, when evaluated as a single group,393 and results of pulmonary
function tests were similar in Gulf War and nondeployed era veterans.755
The question most relevant to oil fire exposures, however, is whether Gulf War veterans have developed
respiratory diseases at excess rates as a result of the Kuwaiti oil well fires. Several studies have addressed
this question, using different methods to identify disease and degree of exposure, as summarized in Table
2. As shown, results of these studies are somewhat mixed, with two finding that asthma rates are
significantly associated with self-reported exposure to oil well fire smoke and two indicating that modeled
oil fire smoke exposure is not associated with symptoms suggestive of asthma/bronchitis or with
hospitalization for these conditions.
Table 2. Association of Oil Fire Exposure with Respiratory Diseases
in U.S. Gulf War Veterans
Study
Population

Outcome
Measures

Assessment of
Oil Fire Exposure Major Findings

Cowan285 873 asthma cases,
2002
2,463 controls; Army
CCEP participants

physiciandiagnosed
asthma

self reported

Asthma sign. associated with self-reported
exposure (OR = 1.6)

CHPPM models

Asthma sign. associated with the number of
high-exposure days and cumulative smoke
exposure levels; sign dose/response effect

self reported

Asthma and bronchitis sign. associated with
exposure (ORs = 1.8-2.8)

CHPPM models

Neither associated with modeled exposures

CHPPM models

Hospitalizations for asthma, bronchitis were
not sign. associated with modeled exposures

Study

Lange866 1,560 Iowa GW
2002
veterans

1434

Smith
2002

405,142 GW veterans

symptoms
suggestive of
asthma, bronchitis
military
hospitalizations,
1988-1999

Abbreviations: CCEP = Comprehensive Clinical Evaluation Program, OR = odds ratio, CHPPM = U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion
and Preventive Medicine, GW = Gulf War, sign. = statistically significant

The study of respiratory disease in relation to oil fire exposure that is strongest methodologically, in
several respects, was the 2002 study led by Dr. David Cowan. It assessed asthma cases among Army
veterans enrolled in the CCEP, and is likely to have provided the most accurate information. This study
was unique among Gulf War studies in that it evaluated the rate of a medical condition that had been
clinically diagnosed, in relation to modeled exposure levels. Case ascertainment and level of exposure in
this study were therefore less susceptible to bias, and so presumably provide the most valid results. The

82  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

study found that asthma rates were significantly higher in Gulf War veterans exposed to higher levels of
oil fire pollutants—both in terms of the number of days exposed and cumulative exposure levels. The
study also identified a clear dose-response effect, with asthma risk increased about 20 percent in veterans
with intermediate exposure levels, and 40 percent in veterans with highest exposure levels.285
There is evidence from other occupational groups to indicate that chronic exposure to petroleum
combustion products is associated with increased risk for respiratory cancers, as previously described.684
Although no studies have thus far identified excess rates of respiratory cancers in Gulf War veterans,892,943
research in this area continues to be important, given the extended latency period required for many
cancers to be diagnosed. The only information relating cancer rates specifically to the Kuwaiti oil fires
comes from a study limited to data from military hospitalizations, which found no excess cancer
hospitalizations in relation to modeled smoke exposure levels.1434
Remaining questions. Although an extensive amount of information is available from diverse
sources concerning exposures associated with the Kuwaiti oil fires and their likely health effects, a
number of questions specifically related to the health of Gulf War veterans remain unanswered. These
include questions concerning levels of toxic exposures likely encountered by the subgroup of veterans
who were very close to the burning wells for a prolonged period during February and March of 1991.
Little information is available on health effects potentially resulting from prolonged inhalation of oily
smoke, possibly combined with oil ingestion and dermal oil exposures. In addition, no information is
available from epidemiologic or toxicology studies concerning the potential for oil fire exposures to act
synergistically with other Gulf War-related exposures. Preliminary evidence indicates that oil fire
exposure has not been associated with increased cancer rates, but may have contributed to increased
asthma rates in Gulf War veterans. Additional studies are needed to provide more conclusive answers
with respect to asthma and other chronic respiratory conditions in relation to oil fire exposures.
Continued monitoring of cancer rates in Gulf War veterans is also important, in part to determine whether
cancers with long latency periods may be associated with oil fire exposures in the Gulf War.
Summary. Gulf War illness and the Kuwaiti oil well fires. The roaring flames, darkened smokefilled sky, and petroleum rain from the hundreds of Kuwaiti oil fires burning from February through
November of 1991 are among the most vivid images of the Gulf War. Measurements taken by
environmental assessment teams in theater, particularly after May of 1991, indicate that the primary oil
fire-related pollutants of concern were high levels of particulates, but that chemical air pollutants were
generally below established standards. Little information is available, however, on measured levels of oil
fire-related pollutants in close proximity to the burning wells, particularly in the early months of 1991
before seasonal winds dissipated the heavy clouds of smoke at ground level.
The majority of Gulf War veterans encountered some level of smoke from the Kuwaiti oil well fires,
although exposure was transient for many. Epidemiologic studies have routinely evaluated rates of Gulf
War multisymptom illness in relation to oil fire exposure, using diverse assessment methods and
providing mixed results. Overall, the lack of consistent findings relating oil well fires to Gulf War illness,
particularly from the methodologically stronger studies, and the modest degree of risk identified by
studies that found a significant association, indicate that the Kuwaiti oil well fires are not likely to have
been the primary cause of Gulf War multisymptom illness for the majority of affected veterans. This
general conclusion is qualified, however, by indications from several studies that more intense or
sustained exposures may be associated with multisymptom illness, and the lack of information concerning
the subset of veterans with particularly high exposures. In addition, one high-quality study has provided
evidence that smoke exposure from the Kuwaiti oil fires is associated with an excess rate of asthma in the
subset of Gulf War veterans with higher-level exposures.

Kuwaiti Oil Well Fires and the Health of Gulf War Veterans  83

Recommendations
Based on available research and exposure information, the Committee finds that Kuwaiti oil well fires are
not likely to be the primary cause of Gulf War illness for the majority of affected veterans. However,
additional information is required to determine if higher level oil well fire exposures may have
contributed to the risk of Gulf War illness or diagnosed medical conditions in identifiable subsets of Gulf
War veterans. To address remaining questions related to long-term health effects of the Kuwaiti oil fires,
the Committee recommends the following research:
 Analyze data collected from completed and ongoing epidemiologic studies to determine whether
the subset of Gulf War veterans with the highest level exposures to smoke, oil, and particulates
from the Kuwaiti oil well fires have elevated rates of Gulf War illness or other conditions. Such
analyses should properly adjust for confounding effects of other Gulf War exposures.
 Conduct additional analyses of existing data from the U.S. national survey of Gulf War veterans
and the Phase III clinical study to determine if rates of upper and lower respiratory conditions,
pulmonary function abnormalities, or other medical conditions are significantly associated with
modeled or self-reported levels of oil fire exposures.
 Continue monitoring cancer rates in Gulf War veterans, including assessment of cancer rates
among subsets of veterans identified by modeled levels of oil fire exposures, self-reported oil fire
exposure levels, and/or locations and time periods of deployment

84  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Depleted Uranium and the Health of Gulf War Veterans
After everything was over, we went back through the areas we had shot up and climbed all
over the vehicles we had destroyed. We wanted to see the damage our tanks had done, and
we were looking for souvenirs. I know of one guy who found a spent DU penetrator rod and
kept it. I knew we were shooting DU rounds, but we were never told to stay away from
vehicles that were hit by DU rounds. Now I know that we probably got DU dust all over us.
But we didn’t know any better, and we were dipping, smoking, and eating without having
washed our hands. Right after the war we saw lots of guys from other units climbing on the
vehicles we had shot with DU rounds. ... In April, 1991, while we were in Kuwait, I started
getting diarrhea, nausea, stomach cramps, headaches, and tightness in my chest. My
problems have gotten worse since then.
--Gulf War veteran, 2nd Armored Division425

The 1990-1991 Gulf War was the first conflict in which armaments containing depleted uranium, or DU,
were widely used in a war zone. Depleted uranium is a dense, weakly radioactive metal with physical
properties that make it particularly useful in weapons. Troops on the ground in the 1991 war were often
unaware that the U.S. was firing DU munitions, that some U.S. tanks were shielded with DU armoring, or
that precautions should be taken against possible health hazards related to this substance. After military
personnel began reporting unexplained health problems in the aftermath of Desert Storm, questions have
been raised concerning DU’s possible role in causing or contributing to these conditions.
Like other potentially hazardous substances encountered in the Gulf War, no measurements or records
exist that quantify the amount of DU to which individuals were exposed. Unlike other Gulf War-related
exposures, however, there is relatively little information available from epidemiologic studies concerning
veterans’ exposure to DU and its possible link to Gulf War illness. To address some of the unknown
factors related to DU exposure in the Gulf War, the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) mounted an
extensive effort to model and/or recreate DU exposure scenarios in order to estimate likely exposure
levels under specific circumstances.1172,1620 Such efforts have provided information on likely levels of DU
exposures for some personnel who served in Desert Storm, particularly those involved in friendly fire
incidents.1173 Measured and modeled DU exposure levels have, in turn, been used to estimate the risks of
specific health problems such as cancer and kidney damage that might be expected from those exposures.
What has not been assessed to a meaningful degree by these models, however, is the extent to which the
multisymptom illness affecting Gulf War veterans may be associated with DU exposures during
deployment.
Depleted uranium is a byproduct of the process that converts natural uranium to enriched uranium for use
in nuclear weapons and reactors. What remains, “depleted” uranium, is about 60 percent as radioactive as
natural uranium.1620 In addition to potential hazards associated with its radioactivity DU, a heavy metal,
also presents a possible chemical hazard. It is its extreme density that makes DU exceptionally valuable
in armor-piercing rounds and as an armoring material for tanks. The effectiveness of DU in weaponry
was evidenced by the thousands of Iraqi tanks that were destroyed during the Gulf War by the 120 mm
armor-piercing DU penetrators fired by Abrams tanks and the 25 and 30 mm DU rounds fired by the Air
Force’s A10 aircraft and the Marine Corps’ AV-8B Harriers. DU was also remarkably effective as an
armoring material. DOD reports indicate that no American tanks protected by DU armoring were
penetrated by Iraqi fire.1620
In addition to its extreme density, DU has another property that enhances its effectiveness in weapons.
Depleted uranium is pyrophoric, that is, DU rounds burst into flames when they hit their target, causing
fire and frequently explosions when the targets’ fuel tank or munitions are ignited. The resulting fire and
exhaust contain DU dust and aerosol, which can be inhaled or ingested by personnel in the area, and
absorbed onto their clothing and skin. This dust also settles on what is left of the target vehicle and in the
surrounding area.
Depleted Uranium and the Health of Gulf War Veterans  85

About 320 tons of DU was used during the Gulf War1620 and much of that material is believed to still be
present in the local environment. Since the 1990-1991 Gulf War, the U.S. and its allies have also used
DU in conflicts in the Balkans and in operations in Afghanistan and Iraq. A number of agencies and
groups have raised concerns about the potential for long-term environmental damage that may result from
DU’s persistence in soils and water in areas where it has been used in warfare.181 International attention
to this issue has resulted in a number of reports concerning DU’s environmental and health
effects.1325,1696,1811 Questions related to environmental contamination associated with the use of DU will
not be addressed by the present report, however, since they do not directly pertain to the Committee’s
charge of reviewing research on the health of Gulf War veterans.
Current military policy now directs soldiers who come into contact with spent DU munitions or areas
contaminated by DU to wear protective clothing, to shower immediately following exposure, and to be
medically evaluated.1598 Because no such information or training was provided during the 1990-1991
Gulf War1671 it is important to determine whether chronic health problems may have resulted from DU
exposures.
Depleted Uranium Exposure in the Gulf War
The largest number of military personnel exposed to DU during the Gulf War were the thousands who
were in areas of and/or came into contact with destroyed Iraqi vehicles—those in or around burning or
destroyed vehicles as part of their official duties and those just interested in these vehicles—climbing on
them, getting inside, and taking souvenirs after the battle. DU exposures for the majority of those in the
Gulf War, then, would have primarily been through inhalation, ingestion, and dermal contact.
The highest dosage DU exposures during the war, although they involved considerably fewer individuals,
were those in which vehicles carrying U.S. troops were mistakenly hit by DU rounds in friendly fire
incidents. These U.S. vehicles may or may not have themselves been loaded with DU munitions or DU
armoring. American personnel in or on tanks hit by DU rounds would have experienced more
concentrated levels of inhaled DU. Some individuals were actually hit by DU munitions or shrapnel, and
may continue to carry DU fragments in their bodies to this day.
We were in a congested area with burning vehicles all around. Suddenly, the tank in front of
us caught fire. The ammunition blew, but the blowout panel saved the lives of the crew. We
saw DU penetrators flipping end over end over our heads. We immediately rushed to the tank
to rescue the guys in it. We were breathing smoke from the burning ammo, but we had no
concern about DU and took no protective measures. Afterwards, we stayed around that area
for two or three hours but we were buttoned up due to exploding vehicles and ordnance
around us.
th

--Gulf War veteran, 24 Infantry Division

425

The Camp Doha fire. A major DU incident of concern involves a July, 1991, fire at a U.S. military
base in Doha, Kuwait.1361 The fire began in an M992 ammunition carrier loaded with artillery shells, then
spread to stored munitions and vehicles loaded with ammunition. The scene has been described as a
chaotic series of explosions and fires that scattered munitions and debris over a wide area, with vehicles
and shells exploding for over six hours, and fires burning for a full 24 hours.425,1620 The fire damaged or
destroyed almost $15 million in ammunition, over 100 vehicles, and over 20 buildings.1620 When the fire
was out, the area remained extremely hazardous due to the dispersion of massive amounts of debris
containing live ordnance, and settling of oxidized DU dust in the area. Injuries and three deaths are
reported to have resulted from unintentional detonations of the ordnance.1361 Afterwards, the Army
cleared the area and removed most of the contaminated soil. Tests conducted by the International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA) in 2001 determined that high levels of DU were still present in soil removed from
86  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

the area during the 1991 clean up operation.691 DOD reports indicate that as many as 4,000 people were
in the area during the fire and that afterwards, over 600 individuals were directly involved in cleanup and
decontamination.1620 Cleanup efforts took months to complete, during summer temperatures that typically
exceeded 110 degrees, with workers often engulfed by smoke from the burning oil well fires nearby.1620
Recovery workers were reported not to have used protective measures during cleanup, with many
unaware of the hazards potentially associated with DU.1361
Others who likely experienced higher levels of DU during deployment were personnel whose duties
included disposing of or cleaning up enemy and U.S. vehicles damaged or destroyed during the war. This
included members of a Battle Damage Assessment Team charged with evaluating U.S. vehicles hit by DU
munitions and members of the 144th Service and Supply Company who processed damaged equipment,
including vehicles hit by DU.1620
For three months after the fighting stopped, R. and his buddies in the 3rd Armored Division
combat engineer squadron were ordered to crawl around in the black dust left over from
successful shots of depleted uranium. He was ordered to live and breathe in it while finishing
the job of destroying damaged Iraqi tanks and munitions, to make sure the enemy’s
equipment couldn’t be used again. ‘We actually slept underneath destroyed tanks and stuff
because we figured they wouldn’t fire at their own destroyed vehicles,’ R said. For months,
the black dust covered many of those vehicles, rubbing off on R’s clothing, getting on his skin,
and often into his food and water.
--Interview with Gulf War veteran, 3rd Armored Division415

How many Gulf War veterans were exposed to DU during the war? The IAEA has estimated
that over 860,000 DU rounds were fired in the Gulf War.691 Government reports have not provided
information cataloguing specific sites where DU munitions were fired or individual units likely to have
had the greatest exposures, as has been done in relation to oil well fires and low-level nerve agent
exposure. An exposure analysis conducted by a veterans’ group involved in the DU issue concluded that
“several hundred thousand Gulf War veterans may have inhaled, ingested, or incurred wound
contamination by depleted uranium dust”425 but there are no official government estimates of the total
number exposed. A DOD map provided to the Presidential Special Oversight Board in 1998 indicated
that the highest concentration of DU munitions were fired in southern Iraq and Eastern Kuwait, within
100-200 kilometers of Iraqi borders with Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.1232,1612 It is likely that the greatest
concentration of DU-exposed military personnel would be those in locations where air assaults and
ground battles took place. Epidemiologic studies have indicated that about 30 percent of Gulf War
veterans participated in ground combat751 and about 40 percent were in areas where combat took place.1476
In a 2000 Environmental Exposure Report, DOD’s Office of the Special Assistant for Gulf War Illnesses
classified DU exposure into three categories. The report estimated that up to 164 individuals experienced
Level I exposures—the highest level—in association with friendly fire incidents. Over 700 more were
estimated to have experienced Level II exposures in connection with processing of enemy and U.S.
vehicles hit by DU munitions and with cleanup operations after the Doha fire. The report indicates that
the number of personnel who experienced Level III exposures, those in areas of burning or destroyed
vehicles, is “unknown.”1620
Health Effects of DU Exposure
Despite the large number of military personnel and civilians potentially exposed to DU during and since
the 1991 Gulf War, relatively few studies have directly evaluated human health effects associated with
DU exposure. Some scientists and commentators have concluded that DU exposure is a likely
explanation for the multisymptom conditions affecting Gulf War veterans, given its potential for both

Depleted Uranium and the Health of Gulf War Veterans  87

radiological and chemical effects.132,359,373,375,1303 Yet the specific types of human health effects that have
been described in relation to DU and uranium exposure have little apparent relationship to the pattern of
chronic symptoms associated with Gulf War illness.
Uranium is a dense heavy metal that is ubiquitous in the natural environment, present in differing
concentrations in different areas. Like other heavy metals, it can be taken into the body through
inhalation, ingestion, or dermal exposure. Most uranium that enters the body is excreted through the
digestive system and kidneys.183 Scientific studies, as well as government and special panel reports have
generally concluded that, at exposure levels encountered by most Gulf War veterans, the chemical effects
of DU are of greater concern than the radiological effects.377,769,1235,1325,1326,1571 The specific types of health
hazards generally believed to be of greatest concern are those affecting tissues where DU accumulates in
highest concentrations, cells that are most vulnerable to its effects, and biological processes known to be
affected by metal and/or radiological toxicity. As a result, health and risk assessments have primarily
focused on DU’s effects on kidney function and on DU’s potential for causing cancer, particularly lung
and bone cancers.183,1000
Research on DU-exposed populations. News articles have reported that rates of cancer and birth
defects in Iraq increased dramatically during the 1990s, specifically in regions where the greatest quantity
of DU was used in the Gulf War.28,1309 Conference reports describing an increased incidence of
congenital anomalies in Basrah43 and increased numbers of cancer cases, both in Iraqi military personnel
who served in the war and in four Iraqi hospitals, lend some support to these contentions.38,931,1078
Limitations in the data make clear interpretation of these reports impossible, however, and no formal
studies have been conducted to clarify this issue.
About 14 tons of DU-containing munitions were used by U.S. forces in the Balkan conflicts during the
1990s.1624 News reports of a perceived excess of leukemia among European soldiers who served in the
Balkans raised concerns about a possible “Balkans Syndrome” resulting from DU exposure.373,454,859,1346
Although no “Balkans Syndrome” issue has been raised among U.S. troops, one study reported that urine
uranium levels were increased in a small cohort of U.S. soldiers during and after their deployment to
Bosnia. The study did not provide information on symptoms or other health parameters, and uranium
levels in this cohort remained below mean levels in the U.S. population.985 In addition, British veterans
who served in Bosnia were not found to have higher rates of symptoms or physical impairment than their
nondeployed peers.642,1698 Several research studies have assessed cancer rates among U.N. soldiers
deployed to the Balkans but have not found excess rates of leukemia.547,1495 One study has reported an
excess of bone cancers among Danish troops who served in the region, based on four identified cases,1495
and another study reported a slight increase in the rate of all cancers combined among Swedish troops
who served in the region.547
Studies have also reported elevated rates of chromosomal and cellular abnormalities, particularly
micronuclei formations, among individuals who live in areas where NATO forces used DU munitions in
the Balkans.673,841,1029 Health implications of these findings are unknown, since affected individuals were
not reported to have any clinical indications of disease. An additional study found no post-war increase in
the rates of childhood leukemia in Croatian counties in which DU was used during the war.854 Studies of
people living in the Sarajevo region during and after the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina indicate that
rates of several types of cancer have increased in recent years, including lung and laryngeal cancer, breast
cancer, bladder cancer, bone cancers, and malignant lymphomas. These increases were said by
investigators to parallel those in other countries in Southeastern Europe over the same period.
Researchers were unable to determine whether increased cancer rates in the Sarajevo region may have
some relation to DU contamination, to other war-related nutritional, environmental, or psychological
factors, or to other risk factors such as smoking, which is extremely prominent in the region.1108,1137

88  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Depleted uranium munitions and armoring have also been used extensively in current conflicts in Iraq and
Afghanistan. One study has reported elevated levels of excreted uranium in a small group of civilians
living in an area of Afghanistan where DU munitions were used in 2002 .375,376 No information was
provided concerning symptoms or medical conditions in relation to the presence/absence of uranium in
these individuals, however. There have been no indications of a widespread problem with undiagnosed,
multisymptom illness in military personnel returning from service in Iraq or Afghanistan.631 Members of
one U.S. Army National Guard police unit that served in Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) did report
unexplained health problems after their return from the war in 2004, however.507,508 This unit was not
directly involved in combat but had been camped in a former train depot near Samawah, Iraq, with
destroyed Iraqi tanks in the area. In news reports, veterans described the living environment in the camp
as “disgusting. Oil, dirt, and bird droppings everywhere, insects crawling all around us.”507 Believing
their problems could be related to DU contamination, some members of the unit have been tested for DU
levels by both the Army and a private laboratory, with contradictory results.508,803 The specific cause or
causes of the health problems in this unit have not been resolved.
Studies of workers occupationally exposed to uranium can also provide insights into possible effects of
DU exposure. Uranium’s chemical properties are identical to those of DU and its radiological effects
exceed those of DU. Studies of uranium miners and mill workers provide information on effects of
exposure to uranium dust sustained over a prolonged period of time. Multiple studies have identified
elevated rates of lung and laryngeal cancer among workers occupationally exposed to
uranium58,184,371,848,1000,1342,1546 and additional studies have indicated that uranium mining may be
associated with increased rates of leukemia1057,1266 and other cancers.372 Recent reviews and government
reports have concluded that the apparent association between occupational uranium exposure and cancer
is questionable, due to multiple confounding factors.769,1571 Most prominently, studies have indicated that
the elevated rate of lung cancer in uranium miners is likely caused by radon exposure in uranium mines
rather than from the uranium itself, except at very high exposure levels.1000,1571 Kidney function has also
long been a concern in relation to uranium exposure. Studies have documented impaired kidney function
in uranium workers,1538 although none have found an excess of mortality from renal disease.1000
Due to worldwide concern about possible long-term health and environmental effects resulting from the
use of DU munitions, a number of scientific bodies and government agencies have sponsored scientific
reviews to assess DU’s likely health effects. Key findings from these reports are summarized in Table 1.
Overall, these reviews have consistently found that available evidence indicates that DU exposures, at
levels experienced by the majority of Gulf War veterans, are not expected to produce long-term health
effects, specifically in relation to excess cancer rates and chronic renal disease. Several of these reports
indicated that there may be a minimal excess in cancer risk among the relatively few personnel with the
highest level exposures—those involved in friendly fire incidents and those whose work included
processing of DU-contaminated vehicles for extended periods. It is important to note, however, that risk
assessments provided by all of these reports are based on toxicological and epidemiologic studies focused
on specific health outcomes—primarily cancers and kidney disease. They do not provide information
concerning risk associated with the development of chronic symptoms or symptom complexes.
Modeled risk assessments, while informative, do not supplant the need for research that directly and
systematically evaluates health outcomes of interest in relation to uranium and DU exposure, particularly
health outcomes not previously evaluated in occupational studies. Almost no information is available that
directly supports or refutes a possible association between uranium exposure and chronic symptom
complexes that resemble Gulf War illness. On one hand, there has been no mention in the medical
literature of a multisymptom syndrome in workers occupationally exposed to uranium, as has been
described for some other occupational groups exposed to neurotoxicants.735 On the other, no studies were
identified that specifically evaluated the occurrence of chronic symptoms in uranium-exposed
populations. Several case reports have described neurological effects following extremely high levels of
uranium exposure.495 For example, workers accidentally exposed to a high dose of uranium aerosol

Depleted Uranium and the Health of Gulf War Veterans  89

Table 1. Health Effects of Depleted Uranium: Key Findings of U.S. and International Reports
Report

Year(s) Key Findings

RAND581

1999

Little concern related to radiological effects and cancer or other health outcomes. Chemical
effects potentially associated with hematological and renal changes, but evidence does not
suggest long-term excess morbidity or mortality.

Institute of
Medicine679,690

2000
2008

Evidence is inadequate to determine whether there is an association between uranium
exposure and lung cancer or other identified cancers. There is also insufficient evidence to
determine whether uranium exposures is associated with nonmalignant renal diseases,
respiratory disease, or reproductive effects.

USACHPPM1576

2000

In the Gulf War, Level I exposures may have exceeded radiation and chemical standards,
warranting medical follow-up of individuals in friendly fire incidents; Levels II and III exposures
are not likely to cause health effects.

DOD Environmental
Exposure Report1620

2000

DU potentially poses a chemical hazard at very high levels, but Gulf War exposure levels are
not expected to produce adverse health effects due to chemical or radiological effects.

World Health
Organization1811

2001

DU may produce transient dose-related effects on renal function; Insoluble inhaled particles
may cause radiological damage in lung tissues, dermal effects are unlikely. Environmental
clean up operations are recommended in high exposure areas, but population screening is not
necessary.

British Royal
Society1325,1326

2002

Higher level DU exposures are potentially associated with increased rates of kidney damage,
lung cancer. Excess risk associated with radiation, primarily for lung cancer, is extremely
small. Chemical toxicity may cause acute kidney effects in relation to very high exposure.

International Atomic
Energy Agency691

2003

Based on measurements taken of environmental samples at 11 sites in Kuwait in 2001, DUrelated radiation exposure to the local population is low and does not present a health hazard.

Capstone Report1173

2004

Modeled health risks from DU inhalation, based on simulated friendly fire exposures, indicate
that health effects from radiation are generally unlikely for personnel in, on, or near vehicles hit
by DU munitions. Minimal increase in cancer risk and short-term kidney effects possible for
personnel in unventilated Abrams tanks. Individuals working in DU contaminated vehicles for
long periods may also exceed occupational exposure standards.

Sandia National
Laboratories967

2005

Minimal excess cancer risk expected for DU-exposed veterans—too small to detect in veterans
with less than Level I exposures, with most excess due to lung cancer. Renal effects are
unlikely, but neurotoxic effects cannot be ruled out based on limited available evidence.
Continued monitoring for long-term or unexpected health effects is recommended.

Abbreviations: DU = depleted uranium, USACHPPM = U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine,
DOD = Department of Defense

during World War II were reported to have “mental status changes believed to be in excess of what would
be caused by a fear reaction” but no clinical effects were noted when two of the workers were reevaluated
38 years later.770 A case report of long term effects of a massive skin exposure to uranium indicated that,
seven years later, the patient continued to experience chronic tiredness, dizziness, and headache.1837 In
general, however, there is little reliable information concerning the presence or absence of chronic
symptoms and neurological abnormalities in relation to uranium exposures.
Taken together, human research on the effects of uranium exposures indicate that the potential for DU to
cause some cancers, particularly for those with higher-level exposures, cannot be ruled out. No excess of
symptomatic illness has been reported in studies of workers occupationally exposed to uranium or people
living in areas where DU has been used. However, there is also no indication that symptomatic health
outcomes have been assessed in these populations. Overall, the extensive use of DU in current conflicts,

90  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

and the absence of a widespread “Gulf War illness”-type problem, argues against a major role for DU in
the etiology of Gulf War illness. In addition, the types of diagnosed conditions that have been assessed in
relation to uranium exposure, such as lung cancer and renal disease, have thus far not been associated
with Gulf War service.
Animal research on the effects of DU. As with other potentially toxic exposures, ethical
considerations prohibit experimental studies involving human exposure to DU. Information on specific
biological effects of DU exposure is obtained, therefore, from animal studies and studies involving in
vitro exposure of cells and tissues to uranium compounds. A large number of studies investigating
biological effects of DU have been reported in the medical literature in recent years—nearly a hundred in
the past decade. Uranium and DU toxicity depend on dosage and route of exposure, and on the chemical
form of the uranium compound, particularly its level of solubility. Studies have evaluated effects of DU
administered in diverse ways to different animals and tissues at varying dosage levels and durations.
DU effects potentially relevant to Gulf War illness. Gulf War illness and associated symptoms cannot
specifically be evaluated in animal models, but recently-demonstrated biological effects of DU may have
relevance to Gulf War illness. Kidneys and lungs have traditionally been considered the primary target
organs for uranium toxicity, but animal studies have recently shown that uranium exposure can also target
the brain.21,288,713,1168 Early studies of uranium-exposed animals rarely evaluated effects on the central
nervous system,873 although several studies conducted prior to 1950 had indicated that very high uranium
exposures can lead to muscle weakness and gait disturbances in cats and dogs383 and cellular degeneration
in the choroid plexi in dogs and rabbits.1246,1715
More recent studies, summarized in Table 2, indicate that uranium and/or DU can accumulate in the
brain, where it can be associated with biological and behavioral effects. Neurological effects have been
demonstrated in multiple studies, mostly in relation to prolonged exposure to soluble forms of DU, and
also in relation to prolonged exposure to DU pellets implanted under the skin. Uranium appears to cross
the blood brain barrier883,1192 and accumulate differentially in specific brain regions, most consistently the
hippocampus, cortex, midbrain, and cerebellum. Of particular relevance to the Gulf War experience, two
studies610,896,1061 have shown that inhaled uranium aerosols can access the brain directly, crossing the
“nose-brain barrier,” in ways similar to those documented for other heavy metals356,357,897 and independent
of circulating uranium levels. Of particular interest are findings from an ongoing study at the University
of New Mexico indicating that DU penetration into the brain through the nose is enhanced in the presence
of nasal inflammation.896
DU and uranium have also been shown to affect learning and behavior in animal studies, in some cases at
dosages below those associated with renal toxicity.12,97,174,647,890,1061 In addition, one study has provided
preliminary evidence that some neurological effects may result from uranium’s radiological, and not just
its chemical properties. French researchers have reported that ingested enriched uranium accumulates in
the hippocampus and hypothalamus at levels that exceed those of DU, and produces greater alterations in
sleep patterns and behavior.647
Taken together, this group of studies indicates that DU and uranium can accumulate in the brain and can
produce biochemical and behavioral alterations in animal models. It remains to be determined, however,
if DU exposures like those encountered by the largest number of Gulf War veterans, that is, exposure to
more insoluble forms of DU via inhalation or ingestion for more limited time periods, can produce
chronic neurological or behavioral effects. The New Mexico study is an important example of a
particularly relevant approach, involving dosage and exposure scenarios that parallel those of Gulf War
veterans.896 The Committee looks forward to reviewing final results from this project as they become
available.

Depleted Uranium and the Health of Gulf War Veterans  91

Table 2. Brain and Behavioral Effects of Uranium and Depleted Uranium in Animals

Study
1192

Pellmar
1999

Model

Exposure

Major Finding(s)

rat

DU pellets implanted for 6,12, 18
months

Brain is a reservoir for DU; differential brain accumulation at 18
months, elevated in cortex, midbrain, vermis

Abou-Donia12 rat
2002

Uranyl acetate injected IM, 0.1 and 30 days post exposure, nitric oxide increased in midbrain and
1mg/kg, 1x/day, 7 days
cortex, increased AChE activity in cortex, reduced neurobehavioral
performance on inclined plane, grip time, beam walk

Briner173
2002

rat

Uranyl acetate in drinking water,
Time-dependent behavioral changes (line crossing, rearing)
varied doses for 2 weeks, 6 months

Lewis610,896
2004

rat

Inhalation of uranium aerosols in
dosages and durations to parallel
Gulf War scenarios

Limited brain uptake of uranium evident in a fraction of animals,
primarily in olfactory bulb. Evidence of neuroinflammation (glial
fibrillary acidic protein) with more soluble forms and with concurrent
nasal inflammation.

Barber98
2005

rat

Single uranyl acetate IP injection,
1mg/kg

Uranium entered brain rapidly, cleared slowly, distributed
heterogeneously; elevated in cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum after
7 days; stress enhanced uranium clearance

Briner174
2005

rat

Uranyl acetate in drinking water,
Dose-dependent behavioral changes (increased line crossing,
varied doses, 2 weeks or 6 months rearing), appeared earlier in males; increased brain lipid oxidation

Houpert647
2005

rat

Enriched (EU) or DU in drinking
water, 1.5 months

Both accumulated in brain, particularly the striatum; EU also
accumulated in hippocampus and hypothalamus; EU but not DU
increased paradoxical sleep, reduced spatial working memory,
increased anxiety-like behavior

Lestaevel890
2005

rat

Uranyl nitrate injected IP at 70,
144 ug/kg

Decreased food intake, reduced paradoxical sleep

Lestaevel889
2005

rat

Uranyl nitrate in drinking water
(40 mg/l) for 90 days

EEG changes after 30 days: increased rapid eye movement sleep
and theta band power during light period

Monleau1061
2005

rat

Inhalation of U02 aerosol for 30
min, 4 days/wk, 3 wks

Differential accumulation in brain: olfactory bulb > hippocampus >
frontal cortex >cerebellum; increased locomotor and rearing
activity, impaired spatial working memory

Bussy202
2006

rat

Uranyl nitrate in drinking water
(40mg/l) up to 9 months

Uranium accumulated in striatum, hippocampus, frontal cortex;
dopamine level decreased at 1.5 months in hypothalamus, AChE
decreased in cerebellum after 6 months; decreases in dopamine,
serotonin levels and turnover ratios in frontal cortex and striatum

Fitsanakis444
2006

rat

Implanted DU pellets, 3 or 6
months

DU accumulates in brain, significantly elevated in cortex, midbrain,
and cerebellum at 6 months

Arfsten60
2007

rat

0-20 DU pellets, implanted 150
days

No evidence of significant neurobehavioral effects

Barber99
2007

rat

Single injection of uranyl acetate,
varying doses (0.1-1.0 mg U/kg).

Brain levels of uranium remained elevated after serum levels
normalized at 7 days. Highest dosage sign. reduced motor activity,
grip strength. Striatal dopamine transiently reduced after highest
dose. Effects modulated by stress prior to exposure.

Abbreviations: DU = depleted uranium, IP = intraperitoneal, IM = intramuscular, AChE = acetylcholinesterase, U0x= oxides of uranium

92  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Additional DU studies that may also have relevance to Gulf War illness include those demonstrating that
DU exposure can produce immunological changes, including macrophage apoptosis, increased production
of proinflammatory cytokines, and indicators of oxidative stress in exposed cells and animal
tissues.365,739,1061,1196,1751 At sufficient doses DU exposure, like other heavy metals, may also affect the
liver’s ability to effectively process other toxic compounds.538,1222,1452
Genotoxic and mutagenic effects of DU. In addition to Gulf War illness, concerns have been raised
about the potential for DU exposures to lead to increased rates of cancer, particularly cancers that develop
over longer latency periods and might not yet have been detected in Gulf War veterans. Early animal
studies had suggested that prolonged inhalation of uranium aerosol can lead to delayed development of
lung tumors in dogs.873 In recent years, multiple studies have shown that DU and uranium have genotoxic
and mutagenic effects on cells, producing changes associated with tumor growth in animals, as
summarized in Table 3. Much of this research has been conducted by scientists at the U.S. Armed Forces
Radiobiology Research Institute (AFRRI). As shown, studies have addressed cancer-related questions on
multiple levels using diverse models. Exposure of a variety of cultured cell lines to soluble and insoluble
forms of DU has been shown to produce genotoxic effects, including increased frequencies of DNA
strand breaks, adducts, micronuclei, chromosome aberrations, dicentrics, and sister chromatid
exchanges.280,1031,1034,1040,1821 One study reported that these effects can be carried through multiple cell
generations,1034 and two studies have indicated that genotoxic effects of inhaled uranium aerosols may be
potentiated by repeat exposures.1062,1063 Recent in vitro studies also suggest that genotoxic effects of
lower-dose DU exposures are more likely to be reversible than higher dose exposures.1532
Additional studies have shown that soluble and insoluble forms of DU can cause mutagenic cellular
changes and transformation, and that these transformed cells are highly tumorigenic.1031,1039,1040 Of direct
concern for Gulf War veterans who continue to carry DU-containing shrapnel fragments in their tissues,
New Mexico investigators have found that animals with DU fragments implanted in their muscles
develop soft tissue sarcomas at increased rates around those fragments.551 In addition, rats with
embedded DU pellets developed leukemia at a significantly elevated rate after being injected with
hematopoietic cells.1032 These studies indicate that continued concerns related to possible carcinogenic
effects of DU are warranted, particularly in relation to embedded DU shrapnel fragments, and support
continued monitoring of exposed populations.
Taken together, animal studies have indicated that DU and/or uranium, in different forms and by various
exposure routes, is differentially distributed in organs and tissues, where it can have effects that have
become known only in recent years.991,1036,1192 Depleted uranium can accumulate differentially in brain
tissues, where it has been associated with physiological, biochemical, and behavioral effects. In addition,
a growing body of research indicates that uranium solutions and aerosols can cause genetic and cellular
changes associated with tumor growth and that embedded DU fragments can be associated with the
formation of tumors. It is important to note, however, that many of the recently-identified effects of DU
developed after prolonged exposure to DU, at doses and in forms not encountered by most veterans
during the Gulf War. Demonstration of the potential for DU, or other Gulf War-related exposures, to
cause adverse effects is not equivalent to demonstrating that those exposures caused Gulf War illness or
other adverse health outcomes in Gulf war veterans. It is important, therefore, to consider information
from toxicology studies in animals in the context of findings from studies of human populations exposed
to uranium and DU and, in particular, studies evaluating the health of Gulf War veterans.

Depleted Uranium and the Health of Gulf War Veterans  93

Table 3. Genotoxic, Mutagenic, and Tumorigenic Effects of Depleted Uranium and Uranium

Study

Model

Exposure

Major Finding(s)

905

Lin
1993

hamster ovary
cells

Uranyl nitrate, varied
doses

Increased frequency of micronuclei, chromosome aberrations,
sister chromatid exchanges

Miller1031
1998

human osteosarcoma cells

DU-uranyl chloride

2-fold increase in sister chromatid exchanges; 9.6-fold increase in
cell neoplastic transformation frequency; tumorigenic when
injected into nude mice

Miller1035
1998

Ames reversion Urine from DU-exposed
assay
rats

Dose/time-dependent increased mutagenesis

Miller1039
2001

human osteosarcoma cells

Insoluble DU-O2

Tumorigenic transformation, prevented by phenyl acetate

Miller1040
2002

human osteosarcoma cells

Insoluble DU-O2

25-fold increase in transformation frequency, tumorigenic in nude
mice; genotoxicity (increased sister chromatid exchanges,
micronuclei, DNA breaks); increased dicentric formations

Miller1037
2002

calf thymus DNA DU-UO2(NO3)2 solution

Catalyzed oxidative DNA damage at pH 7 in absence of significant
alpha decay

Miller1038
2002

human osteosarcoma cells

3 uranyl nitrate
compounds,
50 uM, 24 hrs

Sign. more dicentric formations than nickel; neoplastic
transformation increased with specific activity of uranyl nitrate

Hahn551
2002

rat

Implanted DU fragments, Fragment size-dependent increase in soft tissue sarcomas around
varied sizes
DU fragments

Miller1034
2003

human osteosarcoma cells

DU-UO2NO2 solution

Yazzie1821
2003

pBluescript
plasmid DNA

DU-uranyl acetate
6-8-fold increase in DNA strand breaks vs. either UA or ascorbate
dehydrate in the presence alone; suggests uranyl ascorbate catalyzes DNA hydrolysis
of ascorbate

Miller1033
2004

human liver
Insoluble DU-O2, varied
carcinoma cells doses

Miller1032
2005

mouse

Hematopoietic cells
Leukemia developed in 76% of mice with DU pellets compared to
injected into mice with DU 12% of controls
pellets

Monleau1063
2005

rat

Inhalation of UO2
(insoluble) and UO4
(soluble) aerosols

Stearns1475
2005

hamster ovary
cells

Uranyl acetate dihydrate, Formation of U-DNA adducts and mutations; DNA strand breaks
varied doses
and cell death greater in EM9 than AA8 cells

Coryell280
2006

hamster ovary
cells

Uranyl acetate, 200µM,
24 hours

Unique pattern of genetic mutations at hprt locus: fewer base
deletions, more multiexon insertions and deletions

Monleau1062
2006

rat

Inhalation of UO2
(insoluble) and UO4
(soluble) aerosols

Repeated UO2 preexposure increases genotoxic effects of UO4
inhalation, no effect of UO4 alone

Genomic instability in cell progeny (36 days, 30 doublings);
delayed lethality, production of micronuclei up to 36 days post
exposure

Dose-dependent induction of gene promoters through multiple
pathways

DNA strand breaks in bronchoalveolar cells, potentiated by repeat
inhalations

Abbreviation: DU = depleted uranium, U0x= oxides of uranium, N0x = oxides of nitrogen

94  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Research on the Health of Gulf War Veterans in Relation to DU Exposure
Laboratory assessment of DU and uranium levels in Gulf War veterans. Several groups have
evaluated DU and uranium levels detectable in Gulf War veterans since Desert Storm, using a variety of
testing methods. One research team, using thermal ionization mass spectrometry to identify specific
isotopes at low concentrations, evaluated urine uranium levels in 25 British, Canadian, and U.S. Gulf War
veterans with inhalation exposure to DU, 8-9 years after the Gulf War.630 No uranium was detected in 2
individuals, 11 had evidence of natural uranium, and 14 tested positive for DU, in varying proportions. A
separate study evaluated genotoxicity in peripheral lymphocytes of British veterans who believed they
had been exposed to DU—14 in the Gulf War and 3 in the Balkans. Analyses indicated an excess of
chromosomal aberrations in this group, particularly dicentric and centric ring chromosomes, but no
elevation in sister chromatid exchanges.1369
Since 1998, VA has sponsored a program to evaluate uranium levels in veterans who have concerns
relating to DU exposure. Between 1998 and 2002, 446 samples were analyzed using 24 hour urine
collections submitted to the Baltimore VA for analysis.993,999 The large majority of samples contained no
detectable uranium, but 22 (5%) were determined to have uranium levels in the “high” range (>0.05 ug/g
creatinine), the upper limit of uranium distribution in the general population. Risk factors most strongly
associated with elevated levels of uranium were having retained shrapnel in the body, being involved in a
friendly fire incident, and being hit by enemy fire.
The Canadian Ministry of National Defence has also provided a testing program for personnel concerned
about DU exposures. A 2002 report provided results for 104 veterans who had submitted 24 hour urine
samples up to that time: 65 had served in the Gulf War, 25 served in Bosnia, and 14 had served in both.
Hair samples were collected and a bone sample from a deceased Gulf War veteran was also tested.
Values from all urine and hair samples were reported to be in the normal range and isotopic analyses
indicated that the uranium present was consistent with natural uranium. Analysis of the bone sample
from the deceased veteran indicated a higher-than-normal uranium concentration, but isotopic analysis
results were also reported to be consistent with natural uranium.1162 A later report indicated that all 227
Canadian veterans tested in the program had normal 24 hour urine uranium levels.1376
Reports on small groups of Gulf War veterans tested by private laboratories have reported elevated
uranium levels more commonly than have been reported from government surveillance
programs.374,375,1376 While some differences may relate to the populations being evaluated, the lower rate
of uranium detection in government programs has spurred discussion and disagreement concerning the
most sensitive and most appropriate testing method to use.374,1469,1626 Unfortunately, regardless of the
methods used or the uranium levels detected, evaluations of this type have provided no direct insights into
health effects of detected levels of DU or uranium. Similarly, identification of chromosome abnormalities
in Gulf War veterans does not provide useful insights into DU’s health effects without data on symptoms
or other health parameters and without suitable comparison groups.
Research studies evaluating the health of Gulf War veterans in relation to DU exposure.
In 2006, the ombudsman for Canadian National Defence and Canadian Forces issued a special report
related to health concerns raised by members of a Canadian combat engineer regiment that had been
camped next to the U.S. compound at Camp Doha when it caught fire in July 1991. The report described
the heroism of members of the unit who entered the compound during the fire to assist in controlling the
damage, and the unit’s medical staff who worked into the night treating hundreds of injured U.S. troops
under extremely hazardous conditions.1101 The ombudsman indicated that soldiers from the unit have
reported significant health problems since their return—severe headaches, respiratory problems, seizures,
tumors—and that these concerns were poorly addressed by Canadian officials. The report was not
intended to document the extent, nature, or causes of the veterans’ health concerns, focusing instead on
how members of the unit had been treated. Yet it provides a compelling illustration not only of health

Depleted Uranium and the Health of Gulf War Veterans  95

problems reported by Canadian Gulf War veterans, but also of the lack of systematic information on the
extent to which those problems may have resulted from DU exposure.
Symptom complexes and multisymptom illness. Relatively little information is available from
Gulf War epidemiologic studies concerning the relationship of symptomatic illness with DU exposure.
As summarized in Appendix A-4, three U.S. studies, one Danish study, and one Australian study have
evaluated symptom complexes in Gulf War veterans in relation to veteran-reported DU exposure. In
unadjusted analyses, two of the U.S. studies identified significant associations between DU and
symptomatic illness. In Danish Gulf War veterans, self-reported DU exposure was not significantly
associated with persistent neurological or gastrointestinal symptoms, after controlling for effects of other
exposures.1507 Depleted uranium-related information from most of these studies is problematic, however,
due to limitations in how veterans were asked about exposure. Over and above usual problems related to
accurate recall of self-reported exposures during the Gulf War, Gulf War military personnel were
frequently not aware of what DU was, when it was used, or if they had come into contact with it. As a
result, results from studies that simply asked veterans whether or not they were exposed to DU during
deployment are highly questionable.
As with several other Gulf War-related exposures, exposure to DU, would have been most common
among personnel who served in battlefield areas. Two studies have reported that Gulf War illness and
other health outcomes are most prevalent among veterans who reported being in Iraq or Kuwait during the
war, as opposed to those who remained in areas more distant from battlefields.692,1476
Other health outcomes in relation to DU exposure. There is little information from Gulf War
epidemiologic studies concerning associations between DU exposure and health outcomes other than Gulf
War illness. A 2005 study of British Gulf War veterans reported that those who had reported DU
exposure in earlier surveys had nearly twice the rate of disease-related deaths, overall, as other veterans.
The observed excess was based on a relatively small number of deaths, however, and fell short of being
statistically significant (MRR = 1.99, 95% C.I. = 0.98 – 4.04).944 Evaluation of this same cohort between
1991 and 2002 had not identified any indication of excess cancer rates among Gulf War veterans who
reported DU exposure.943
As previously described, media and conference reports have suggested that children born in Iraq in the
1990s, in regions where high concentrations of DU munitions were fired, have experienced excess rates
of birth defects since the Gulf War. Several studies have also indicated that a limited number of birth
defects have occurred at excess rates in children born to Gulf War veterans.57,361,747 Although many have
speculated that DU exposure causes elevated rates of birth defects, no research information is available
that directly addresses this question. Specifically, no studies that have evaluated birth outcomes and birth
defects among Gulf War veterans and their children have assessed whether there is any connection
between reproductive outcomes and DU exposure in the Gulf War.
VA longitudinal study of Gulf War veterans involved in friendly fire Incidents. Just one
research project has directly evaluated the health of Gulf War veterans with known exposure to DU. In
1993 and 1994, VA and DOD initiated a program to monitor health parameters among U.S. personnel in
friendly fire incidents involving DU munitions. Follow up evaluations have been conducted every 2-3
years since that time.1472 In total, about 70 of the 100 individuals identified as eligible for the program
have been evaluated at least once, with between 29 and 50 individuals participating in any given
evaluation year. About one-fourth of study participants continue to carry embedded shrapnel
fragments.992 A variety of parameters have been assessed in veterans participating in the program. In the
1997 evaluation, 29 veterans involved in friendly fire incidents were compared to 38 Gulf War veterans
with no identified DU exposure.997 Later evaluations did not include an unexposed comparison group, but

96  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Table 4. Baltimore VA Longitudinal Evaluation of Gulf War Veterans in Friendly Fire Incidents:
Summary of Findings in Veterans with High (vs. Low) Levels of Excreted Uranium
Measure

Findings (by evaluation year)

Urine uranium

1994, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2001, 2003, 2005: Elevated levels detected in veterans with embedded shrapnel

Renal function

1999: Serum calcium sign. higher, urine creatinine ns lower
2001: Serum creatinine sign. lower; urine total protein and retinol binding protein ns higher
2003: Serum phosphorous sign. higher; retinol binding protein ns higher
2005: Serum uric acid ns lower

Neurocognitive
function

1997: Poorer accuracy on automated performance tests sign. corr with higher uranium levels
2001: Poorer accuracy on automated performance tests ns corr with higher uranium levels
2003: Poorer accuracy on automated performance tests ns corr with higher uranium levels

Serum measures
Hematological 1994: White cells, neutrophils sign. higher; lymphocytes, monocytes sign. lower
1997: Eosinophils ns higher
1999: Neutrophils, monocytes sign. higher; lymphocytes sign. lower
2001: CD4+ T cells, monocytes sign. higher; CD8+ T cells sign. lower; hematocrit and hemoglobin sign. lower
Endocrine

1997: Prolactin sign. higher
2001: Prolactin ns lower; free thyroxine sign. lower

Other

1999: Lactate dehydrogenase sign. lower
2001: Lactate dehydrogenase sign. lower
2003: Glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase ns lower

Genotoxicity
measures

1997: Sister chromatid exchanges ns lower
1999: Sister chromatid exchanges sign. higher
2001: Chromosomal aberrations sign. higher; HPRT mutations ns higher; sister chromatid exchanges ns lower
2003: HPRT mutations ns higher
2005: ln mutation frequencies sign. higher; total number chromosomal abnormalities ns higher

Sperm measures

1997: Sperm concentration sign. higher
1999: Sperm count sign. higher, sperm concentration ns higher
2001: Sperm count and concentration ns higher
2003: Sperm count and concentration ns higher

Sources: McDiarmid 992-998
Abbreviations: sign. = statistically significant (p<0.05), ns = borderline statistical significance (0.05 0.10 ug/g creatine) urinary levels of uranium. A number of differences between
these subgroups have been identified, which are summarized in Table 4.
The most prominent finding from this series of evaluations is that veterans with embedded shrapnel have
continued to excrete elevated levels of uranium throughout the follow up period, levels that have been
fairly consistent over time.628,998 This indicates that these veterans have had a continuous systemic
exposure to uranium as it is mobilized from the fragments and/or a storage depot in the body, and that
excretion has not significantly lowered the body burden of circulating uranium over time.
The significance of identified differences between veterans with higher vs. lower excreted uranium levels
shown in Table 4 is unclear. A number of differences in specific measures have been inconsistent from
year to year. It is not known whether this is because these differences were artifactual or transient, or
because different individuals were in the high and low uranium subgroups in different years. For

Depleted Uranium and the Health of Gulf War Veterans  97

example, prolactin levels were significantly higher in the high uranium subgroup in 1997, but
significantly higher in the low uranium subgroup in 2001, with levels outside the normal range. From one
perspective, this might be interpreted to indicate that the findings are contradictory and not likely to be
important. Conversely, it might indicate that, overall, prolactin perturbations in this small cohort of DUexposed veterans may reflect time-related changes associated with circulating uranium levels. In general,
study investigators have characterized identified differences as having no clinical significance.
One of the more consistent findings over time relates to indications of poorer accuracy on automated
neurocognitive performance tests in 1997, 2001, and 2003 that correlated with urinary uranium levels.
Investigators indicated that these differences were primarily attributable to a subset of individuals with
embedded shrapnel who were affected by severe complications of their combat injuries. Investigators
later reported that veterans with higher urine uranium levels had worse (but not significantly lower)
scores on a summary measure of cognitive function—the Index of Cognitive Efficiency—in 2005, the
first year this summary measure was reported.994
The 2001 evaluation was the first to identify renal function differences between high and low uraniumexcreting subgroups, which investigators suggested may represent changes in proximal tubule function.992
The 2003 evaluation found indications of changes in glomerular and tubular function in both the high and
low uranium subgroups, but indicated that these were not sufficient to cause clinically significant
problems. In all years through 2003, seminal fluid sperm concentrations were higher in veterans with
higher circulating levels of uranium, but the biological significance of this finding is unknown. In
addition, indicators of genotoxicity were observed in the high uranium-excreting subgroup in 1999, 2001,
2003, and 2005.
A lack of significant differences for any given parameter is also difficult to interpret since, with the
exception of the 1997 comparison group, all veterans in the program experienced a significant DU
exposure in 1991. Further, the study’s comparisons between veterans excreting high vs. low levels of
uranium have little power to identify significant differences, given the small number in each subgroup. In
the 2003 evaluation, for example, measures were compared between 13 DU-exposed veterans in the high
uranium-excreting subgroup and 19 veterans in the low-excreting subgroup.995
Parameters not specifically followed or reported over the years include a 1997 finding that five of the 17
DU-exposed veterans tested had detectable uranium levels in their sperm.997 No subsequent measures of
uranium in sperm have been reported. In addition, reports on this cohort have provided little information
on chronic symptoms or symptom complexes. In 1997, the only evaluation that included a Gulf War
comparison group not involved in friendly fire incidents, 90 percent of veterans in the friendly fire cohort
and 71 percent of comparison group veterans were said to have at least one medical problem.997 Some of
the DU-exposed veterans were dealing with the aftermath of severe trauma and injuries—burns, wounds,
and loss of limbs—resulting from the friendly fire incidents in which they were involved.628,997
Investigators categorized medical problems into groups, and reported that the 38 veterans not involved in
friendly fire incidents more often reported “nervous system” and “other” problems than the 29 veterans
in the friendly fire cohort. Thereafter, no differences in “medical problems” were found between
subgroups of DU-exposed veterans excreting high vs. low levels of uranium. It is not clear whether
specific assessments were ever made to determine the frequency and severity of the symptoms commonly
associated with Gulf War service.
Longitudinal reports on this cohort have provided little or no mention of tumors, although the Committee
is aware of two veterans in the assessed group who developed cancer and a benign tumor. The discussion
section of the 1999 follow-up report briefly mentioned that the “other” category of health problems
included one veteran diagnosed with Hodgkin’s lymphoma.998 The Committee was informed that another
veteran evaluated in this cohort had developed a nonmalignant bone tumor. Both cases were confirmed
by the principal investigator of the study. Failure to mention these cases in most scientific reports on this

98  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

cohort is puzzling.996,1472 The study director indicated to the Committee that these cases were not
included because they were not believed to be the result of DU exposure.
Reports on this cohort are often cited to indicate that there are no likely long-term effects of DU exposure,
yet the limited types of information provided and the small number of veterans evaluated leave important
questions unanswered. Most prominently, the study provides no information on possible associations
between DU exposure and the chronic symptom complexes associated with Gulf War illness. And
investigators have not reported on the occurrence of other health outcomes not previously expected to
relate to DU exposure. Given the small size of this cohort, all health outcomes are of interest, even if they
occur as single cases. But the small size of the cohort and lack of an unexposed comparison group mean
the project cannot determine whether DU exposure is associated with common or uncommon diagnosed
conditions of concern such as cancer. As a result, although this longitudinal project has provided useful
information in relation to laboratory parameters in the small number of Gulf War veterans with embedded
shrapnel, it does not provide answers to important questions concerning health effects that may be
associated more generally with DU exposures in the Gulf War.
Taken together, results of epidemiologic studies of Gulf War veterans provide very limited information
concerning possible associations between DU and the health of Gulf War veterans. Risk assessments and
studies indicating that Gulf War veterans should have few concerns related to kidney disease or lung
cancer stemming from DU exposure are reassuring, but provide no insights into possible increases in the
development of chronic symptom complexes or other unexpected health outcomes. The lack of clear
information related to questions of primary concern for Gulf War veterans underscores the need for
additional, focused research studies more capable of providing direct answers to these questions.
Summary. The health of Gulf War veterans in relation to depleted uranium. The 1990-1991
Gulf War was the first conflict in which munitions containing DU were widely used, and the possible role
of DU in causing or contributing to Gulf War-related multisymptom illness has long been the subject of
debate and controversy. About 320 tons of DU were used during the Gulf War and a substantial number
of Gulf War personnel were potentially exposed to DU at lower levels, particularly troops who came into
contact with vehicles damaged by DU munitions. The Department of Defense has indicated that at least
900 U.S. personnel were involved in incidents or activities associated with higher-level DU exposures.
Health risk assessments indicate that DU exposures at levels encountered by the majority of Gulf War
veterans are not likely to result in increased rates of kidney disease or lung cancer, but have not provided
insights directly related to questions concerning persistent symptomatic illness.
Recent animal studies indicate that DU exposure, particularly longer term exposure to soluble forms of
DU, can have adverse effects on the brain and behavior. Research in animal models has also
demonstrated mutagenic and tumorigenic effects of DU that raise concerns, particularly in connection
with sustained DU exposures. Studies of Gulf War veterans have provided limited information
concerning associations between DU and multisymptom illness and other health outcomes of interest.
The extensive use of DU in current Middle East conflicts, in the absence of a widespread “Gulf War
illness”-type problem in returning veterans, suggests that DU is not likely a primary cause of Gulf War
illness for most Gulf War veterans. Questions remain, however, concerning long-term effects of DU in
relation to other health outcomes, particularly among individuals with higher level DU exposures. These
questions indicate the need for epidemiologic research to more comprehensively assess effects of DU
exposure in Gulf War veterans.

Depleted Uranium and the Health of Gulf War Veterans  99

Recommendations
Preliminary evidence from animal studies that DU accumulates in the brain and can cause adverse
physiological and behavioral effects is of interest and potentially of great importance. However, the
Committee finds that specifically with respect to the health of Gulf War veterans, the primary issues of
concern are whether DU is a cause or contributor to Gulf War multisymptom illness, cancer, or mortality.
Therefore, prior to making recommendations related to animal/toxicological studies that evaluate
biological effects of DU, additional research is needed to determine whether rates of Gulf War illness, or
other health outcomes, are associated with DU exposure in an expanded cohort of personnel exposed to
DU during the Gulf War.
To address priority questions concerning health effects related to DU exposures in the Gulf War, the
Committee recommends the following research:
 Conduct an epidemiologic investigation to evaluate health outcomes in Gulf War veterans who had the
greatest exposure to DU during deployment and an unexposed comparison group. The exposed cohort
should include Gulf War veterans exposed to DU via inhalation, ingestion, dermal contact, or
embedded fragments as a result of friendly fire incidents, veterans who served in units tasked with
processing Iraqi or Coalition vehicles struck by DU munitions, and in relation to the Camp Doha fire
and subsequent cleanup activities. Evaluated health outcomes should include detailed information on
symptoms, Gulf War illness, functional status, diagnosed medical conditions, and reproductive
outcomes.
 In current and future studies of Gulf War veterans, assess possible DU exposure by querying veterans
in detail about experiences most likely to have resulted in DU exposures, including veterans’
involvement in friendly fire incidents and the extent of their exposure to vehicles destroyed by U.S.
munitions.
 Continue monitoring cancer rates and mortality in Gulf War veterans, including assessment of cancer
and mortality rates among subsets of veterans identified as being exposed to DU and veterans who
served in areas where the highest concentrations of DU munitions were fired.

100  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Vaccines and Gulf War Illness
Vaccines given to troops for the Gulf War have been among the most prominent, and controversial,
suspected causes of Gulf War illness. Most military personnel who served in the Gulf War received
multiple vaccinations in preparation for deployment, and many received additional shots in theater. Two
of the vaccines used during the war were intended to protect troops from serious disease, and possible
death, in the event of exposure to biological weapons—anthrax and botulinum toxin—that Iraq was
believed to possess. Since the war, reported adverse reactions to the anthrax vaccine, and quality control
issues related to its production, have given it a particularly high profile as a possible cause of Gulf War
illness. There is relatively little scientific research, however, that has provided clear information on the
potential for the anthrax vaccine, or other vaccinations received by Gulf War veterans, to produce chronic
symptoms similar to those of Gulf War illness. Receipt of multiple vaccines over a brief time period,
prior to and during deployment, has also been suspected as a possible contributor to Gulf War illness.
But relatively little research has specifically assessed the development of chronic symptoms following
receipt of numerous vaccines, particularly the specific shots received by Gulf War personnel.
The Committee has reviewed diverse types of evidence relating to multiple questions concerning the
potential for vaccines—individually or collectively—to have contributed to Gulf War illness. The
Committee’s 2004 report, in a preliminary assessment of the issue, pointed out that several epidemiologic
studies had identified associations between Gulf War illness and vaccines received for deployment. The
Committee recommended both prospective and retrospective assessments of individuals who received the
type of anthrax vaccine used during the Gulf War to determine the degree to which recipients developed
symptom complexes like those affecting Gulf War veterans.
Vaccines Given to Gulf War Military Personnel
Routine and predeployment immunizations. Vaccines are an important component of military
force health protection and readiness in both peacetime and in war. Vaccines routinely administered to
military personnel at the time of the Gulf War are shown in Table 1. New recruits are given a series of
vaccinations to protect them from infectious diseases that are common in the U.S., and also from diseases
of greater concern for military populations. At the time of the Gulf War, new recruits received as many
as 17 antigens during the first two weeks of basic training.1523
Throughout their military service, personnel continue to receive vaccines and boosters to maintain
immunity to pathogens of concern. Additional vaccines are given to specific occupational groups, such as
medical personnel, as protection against risks associated with their job duties. Still other vaccines are
routinely given for overseas deployment, as dictated by circumstances specific to the region.1523 Policies
regarding specific vaccines and schedules are established by each service branch. The Department of
Defense reports that these policies are developed in compliance with U.S. Public Health Service
guidelines and in accordance with the U.S. Center for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) Advisory
Committee on Immunization Practices, in consultation with the Armed Forces Epidemiological Board and
Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center.1622
The specific vaccines received by individual U.S. troops before and during the Gulf War varied,
depending on shots they had previously received, required boosters, branch of service, and their military
occupation. In addition to the requirement for all personnel to update required vaccines and boosters,
U.S. Central Command (CENTCOM) recommended additional vaccines for deployment to the Gulf War
theater, including meningococcal, typhoid, and yellow fever vaccines, and immune globulin to protect
against hepatitis A.1622 Smallpox, plague, cholera, and rabies shots were not generally recommended.

Vaccines and Gulf War Illness  101

Table 1. Vaccines Routinely Given to U.S. Military Personnel at the Time of the Gulf War

Vaccine

Personnel Directed
to Receive Vaccine

Schedule

Adenovirus

all recruits

1 oral dose

Influenza

all recruits and active duty

annual shot

Measles

all recruits

1 shot

Meningococcal

all recruits, active duty as required

1st shot, then booster every 3-5 years

Plague

all Marines; Army and Navy special
forces, others in at-risk occupations or
deploying to high risk areas

5 shots over 12 months, then booster
every 1-2 years

Polio

all recruits

1 oral dose

Rabies

special forces, at-risk occupations

3 shot series

Rubella

all recruits

1 shot

Smallpox

vaccine or booster to new recruits
through the late 1980s

1 dose

Tetanus-diphtheria

all recruits, active duty, and reserve

booster every 10 years

Typhoid

Army and Air Force alert forces and for
deployment to high risk areas

2 doses in 2 months, then booster every
3 years

Yellow fever

all Navy and Marine Corps, Army and
1st shot, then booster every 10 years
Air Force alert forces and for deployment
to high risk areas

Sources: Takafuji,1523 U.S. Department of Defense1622

Vaccines administered during the war, and the proportions of U.S. and U.K. veterans who reported
receiving those vaccines, are listed in Table 2. The Iowa survey indicated that nearly all Gulf War
veterans reported getting at least one vaccine for deployment: 70 percent reported receiving more than
five vaccines, and 30 percent received more than 10.692
CENTCOM’s Gulf War-specific vaccine recommendations were modified by the different service
branches, most often by the Army. For example, CENTCOM recommended the meningococcal vaccine
be given to individuals that hadn’t received it for at least five years and were likely to have prolonged
contact with local populations. The Army modified this to recommend meningococcal shots for all
deploying personnel.1622 DOD has reported that there were shortages of the meningococcal vaccine,
immune globulin, and influenza vaccine prior to the war, and that some troops may have received some of
these shots in theater.1622
Vaccines against biological warfare agents. Prior to the war, intelligence reports indicated that
Iraq had weaponized two biological agents, anthrax and botulinum toxin, and military officials believed
they posed a possible threat to U.S. troops. Vaccines against both agents were available. The U.S.
anthrax vaccine had been licensed since 1970, and had primarily been used by occupational groups at risk
for anthrax, for example, veterinarians and those working with animal hides. A pentavalent botulinum
toxoid (BT) was developed in the 1950s and, although not licensed, had investigational new drug (IND)
status with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In light of the potential risk posed by these

102  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Table 2. Vaccines Given to U.S. Military Personnel Specifically for Gulf War Deployment
Proportion of Veterans Reporting
They Received the Vaccine
Vaccine/
Prophylactic
Measure

U.S. Personnel
Recommended
to Receive Vaccine

Recommended
Schedule
for Gulf War

U.S.
National
Survey751

U.S.
Navy
Seabees527

Anthrax

fixed units, rear deployed

2 shots, 2 weeks apart

41%

30%

Botulinum toxoid

fixed units, forward deployed

2 shots, 2 weeks apart;
3rd shot 10 weeks later

12%

8%

Immune globulin

all troops, dose varied by branch and 1 dose (some received
length of deployment
2nd dose)

60%

41%

Meningococcal

all Army; personnel in other branches 1 shot
who had not received it in 5 years and
would have close contact with locals

14%

2%

Typhoid

all Army; personnel in other branches 2 initial doses or 1 booster
who had not received it in 3 years

59%

50%

Yellow fever

all Marines, Navy, Air Force; Army
special forces

U.K.
National
Survey1698

1 shot

57%

12%
14%

Sources: U.S. Department of Defense,1622 and studies indicated

two agents, the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Health Affairs, in September 1990, recommended
instituting a program of immunization against anthrax and botulinum toxin, with the support of the
Surgeons General of all branches of the armed forces.1622,1635
The immunization protocol for the U.S. anthrax vaccine required a series of six injections over a period of
18 months, with annual boosters thereafter. Adequate supplies of anthrax vaccine were not available to
protect all deploying troops with the six-shot regimen, however.1635 Nor was there enough time to fully
immunize troops in the time frame expected for the war to get underway. At the time of the Gulf War,
the U.S. anthrax vaccine was exclusively produced by the Michigan Department of Public Health
(MDPH). Attempts were made in the fall of 1990 to identify additional sources of the vaccine. According
to DOD, these attempts were unsuccessful,1675 and only MDPH-produced anthrax and BT were ultimately
used during the war.1622 CENTCOM developed a policy for using available supplies, and plans for
additional distribution as more vaccine became available.
Department of Defense reports indicate that 310,680 doses of anthrax vaccine were delivered in theater
and that approximately 150,000 troops received one or more anthrax shots. The U.S. Gulf War biological
warfare vaccine program was terminated in March of 1991, when CENTCOM indicated that individuals
who had begun anthrax or BT vaccine series need not complete them.1622
Policies for distribution of biological warfare vaccines to U.S. troops were established in December,
1990, after available supplies were ascertained. A report from DOD indicates that CENTCOM based its
policy for use of the anthrax vaccine on the expectation that, since anthrax takes several days to develop,
it would most likely be used against troops who were not forward deployed.1622 The policy directed that
anthrax vaccine be given to troops in fixed ground units in areas specified by CENTCOM, listed in Table
3. It was not to be given to transient or shipboard personnel, with the exception of pathologists and
laboratory workers.1636 The majority of Gulf War troops vaccinated against anthrax received one or two

Vaccines and Gulf War Illness  103

shots in theater, in January and February 1991.1622 In addition, some Army special operations forces are
reported to have received anthrax vaccine prior to their deployment in August of 1990, with a second shot
given in October or November of 1990.1623
GD oversaw the immunization of more than 14,000 troops against anthrax in one 72-hour
marathon completed just a few days shy of the U.N.’s January 15th deadline for Iraq to pull out
of Kuwait. The Army gave the 129th a special commendation for this achievement. But what
really sticks out in GD’s mind are the extra precautions he and his ‘shot teams’ took in giving
troops the injections—precautions that, even today, strike him as peculiar. ‘Each soldier had
to read a classified sheet of instructions, stating that he, or she, was receiving a secret shot,
and that this was for reasons of national security. You don’t want to tell the enemy you’re
getting protection against one of his weapons.’
…‘Our battalion commander also told us there wasn’t enough anthrax vaccine to go around.
Only combat support troops were getting the shot; we were supposed to keep quiet about it so
the front line guys didn’t get upset about not getting the vaccine. It was a morale issue.’
--Report on Gulf War Army Reservist 977

Which individual Gulf War veterans actually received the anthrax vaccine is not known, however.
According to DOD, units were directed to keep a low profile when administering both anthrax and
botulinum vaccines, for operational security purposes. Shots were not to be given in open areas and no
media or photographs were allowed.1636 Personnel were commonly not told what the shots were, or told
not to discuss with others that they had received them. Although vaccines administered by the military
are typically entered into individuals’ shot records, receipt of anthrax and botulinum vaccines during the
Gulf War were often not recorded, or entered with notations like “Vac A” and “Vac A-2” for the first and
second doses of anthrax vaccine and “Vac B” for the botulinum vaccine. Units sometimes used rosters to
indicate who had received the shots. The DOD Office of the Special Assistant for Gulf War Illnesses
(OSAGWI) reported that it collected a large number of such rosters, but that some did not provide clear
information.1622
Military planners also believed that Iraq had developed the deadly botulinum toxin as a bioweapon and
that it posed a possible danger for troops in theater. The investigational botulinum toxoid (BT) vaccine
had been available for decades and had been used by some high-risk occupational groups, but limited
supplies were available. Due to the perceived threat, DOD petitioned FDA for permission to administer
BT to troops in theater, without informed consent. On December 21, 1990, an interim ruling was jointly
issued by FDA and the Secretary of Health and Human Services, allowing BT to be given to troops in the
Gulf War without informed consent. This interim ruling applied in the limited military situation in which
there was an imminent threat of combat, informed consent was not feasible, and withholding the
treatment (vaccine) would not be in the best interest of personnel.1275
According to DOD, CENTCOM policy for BT distribution in theater was based on the assumption that,
because serious illness develops rapidly after exposure to botulinum toxin, this weapon would most likely
be used against forward deployed troops.1622 As shown in Table 3, personnel in the VII Army Corps and
the 1st Marines Expeditionary Force were designated to receive BT. The recommended protocol in the
Gulf War called for two shots to be given, 14 days apart, with a third dose given 10 weeks later.1637 Due
to limited supplies, the vaccine was to be administered on a voluntary basis. Although several thousand
troops are reported to have declined the vaccine, it appears that troops were not always aware that the
vaccine was voluntary. In all, DOD estimates that 137,850 BT doses were delivered in theater, and that
8,000 individuals received at least one BT shot.246,1622 Like the anthrax vaccine, administration of BT was
directed to be carried out under a low profile, and little information is now available concerning which
individuals received it.

104  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Table 3. U.S. Troops Designated by CENTCOM to Receive
Biological Warfare Vaccines in January 1991

Anthrax Vaccine

Botulinum Toxoid

personnel in Riyadh

Army VII Corps

personnel in Dharan-Damman areas

1st Marine Expeditionary Force

personnel at King Khalid Military City
personnel at Logistic Bases A,B,C,D,E
personnel at Army VII Corps HQ
personnel at Army XVIII Airborne Corps HQ
personnel in Bahrain
1st Cavalry Division
Source: U.S. Department of Defense1622
Abbreviations: CENTCOM = U.S. Central Command, HQ = headquarters

Vaccines received by Coalition forces. Other countries in the allied Coalition adopted different
policies with respect to vaccines and measures taken against the threat of biowarfare agents.1679 British
troops were routinely immunized against yellow fever, tetanus, typhoid, and polio. Some troops also
received the cholera vaccine, and medical personnel were given hepatitis B shots or “jabs.”666 The U.K.
also provided vaccines against biological agents in the Gulf War, in a program also carried out under a
veil of secrecy.1567,1622 The anthrax vaccine used in the U.K. differed from the U.S. vaccine, and was
available in sufficient quantities to provide to all troops. Pertussis vaccine was given as an adjuvant, to
boost the immune response to the anthrax vaccine. Although British troops were not required to take the
anthrax shots, it was administered without explicit informed consent.1087,1567 The British Ministry of
Defence estimated that up to 75 percent of Gulf War personnel received at least one dose of the
anthrax/pertussis vaccine combination, with rates falling off for subsequent shots in the series.1567 British
troops did not receive BT, but were given plague vaccine.
Among other Coalition troops, some Canadian and Australian personnel are reported to have received
anthrax and plague vaccines on a limited basis.75,511 No other Coalition troops are believed to have
received vaccines against bioweapons on a widespread basis.
Health Effects of Vaccines Given to Gulf War Troops
One sick veteran who testified, Air Policeman JG of the Air Force, with orders to ship out to
the Gulf War from Germany, had taken the vaccines and PB tabs and become sick. His
orders were canceled at the last moment. ‘I signed up for the VA Health Registry in 1994.
They sent me to the VA hospital for an exam. The doctor asked me what was wrong and to
describe the symptoms. I was … referred to the mental health clinic for stress-related
problems. Seems awful funny to me that my illness is stress and I was not even in theater.’
--1997 Congressional report, testimony of Air Force veteran1684

The central question related to vaccines for Gulf War veterans is whether any of the vaccines they
received, or some combination of those vaccines, contributed to the development of Gulf War illness or
other chronic health problems. Although Gulf War personnel received many vaccines, attention has
focused overwhelmingly on the anthrax vaccine. Questions have also been raised about possible adverse
Vaccines and Gulf War Illness  105

effects from receiving multiple vaccines in a short time period, as opposed to reactions to any single
vaccine. There have also been concerns related to reports of health problems among individuals who
received vaccines in preparation for Gulf War deployment, but did not actually deploy.69,1476
All vaccines are known to produce, in some individuals, transient, local reactions such as redness or
swelling at the injection site. Less commonly, vaccines can produce systemic and/or prolonged effects.
Very serious reactions can also occur, usually in a very small number of individuals who have an atypical
reaction to some component of a vaccine. In the U.S., the Vaccine Adverse Effect Reporting System
(VAERS) was established in 1990 as a nationwide reporting system for adverse reactions to vaccines.
Co-administered by FDA and CDC, it provides a passive surveillance system that is useful for flagging
unexpected events. The VAERS cannot be used to accurately determine rates of adverse events, since it
depends on reports submitted by healthcare providers, vaccine manufacturers, and patients. Since 1995,
the Department of Defense has required that all adverse reactions to military vaccinations be reported to
VAERS. This includes any event requiring hospitalization or that causes the recipient to miss more than
24 hours from duty.1010,1622
Federal agencies have commissioned multiple reports to evaluate available evidence on health effects
potentially related to vaccines received by Gulf War veterans. The U.S. Army commissioned the 1996
Institute of Medicine (IOM) report Interactions of Drugs, Biologics, and Chemicals in U.S. Military
Forces.677 The IOM committee indicated there was little information describing health effects of the
many combinations of multiple vaccines, drugs, and chemicals to which military personnel are exposed.
The panel recommended a strategy for categorizing known and unknown interactions, and a graded
approach for monitoring and studying their effects.677 In 2000, Volume One of the IOM Gulf War and
Health series of reports reviewed research information on effects of the anthrax vaccine, botulinum
toxoid, and multiple vaccinations. The report concluded that, while evidence clearly indicated that
vaccines are associated with transient adverse effects, there was insufficient evidence to determine
whether the vaccines considered, or multiple vaccinations, are associated with long-term adverse health
effects.679 The Department of Defense also commissioned the RAND Corporation to conduct a review of
scientific information related to vaccines administered to Gulf War veterans, a report that has not yet been
published.
Anthrax Vaccine
The anthrax vaccine has been the focus of intense controversy and debate on multiple fronts. Concerns
have been raised about the vaccine’s efficacy against inhalational anthrax, quality control issues in its
production, short and long-term side effects, vaccine components and adjuvants, and military policies
requiring mandatory vaccination. These issues have been addressed by government investigations and
reports, expert panel reviews, scientific studies, court cases, and editorial
commentaries.514,680,773,1046,1096,1112,1406,1674,1684,1690 With current concerns about the use of biological
weapons against both military and civilian targets, it is vitally important that the full scope of issues
regarding the safety and efficacy of the anthrax vaccine be fully considered in the public arena.
In keeping with its charge, however, the Committee is concerned primarily with evidence related to
associations between the anthrax vaccine given to Gulf War personnel and the development of Gulf War
illness or other chronic health problems. This limited our primary focus to questions about the safety of
the anthrax vaccine, and more precisely, about the potential for the anthrax vaccine administered to Gulf
War veterans to produce persistent health effects. Such questions are complicated by indications that the
anthrax vaccine has not been a constant or uniform entity. Most obviously, the vaccine given to U.S. Gulf
War troops differed substantially from that given to British personnel. But the U.S. vaccine also differed,
in some ways, from the vaccine licensed for use in 1970 and perhaps also from the vaccine distributed to
U.S. military personnel today.

106  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Although media stories describing Gulf War veterans’ unexplained health problems began to appear soon
after the war, concern about a possible role for anthrax vaccine did not become prominent until six years
later. In 1997, a series of stories in Insight magazine reported that Gulf War veterans were made ill by
unlicensed adjuvants added to vaccines they received for the war.1299 Vaccine concerns were heightened
by reports that multiple safety violations had been identified in the production facilities of the
government’s sole anthrax vaccine supplier. Adding to the controversy, in December 1997, DOD
announced plans to implement a program of mandatory anthrax vaccination of all U.S. military personnel.
In March 1998, DOD initiated the Anthrax Vaccine Immunization Program (AVIP), a massive effort to
vaccinate all personnel against anthrax using the six-shot, 18 month protocol. This program has been
controversial since its inception, associated with high profile media reports of serious illness, even death,
following receipt of the anthrax vaccine.416,417,1247 Some personnel refused to be vaccinated and some
refusers were punished—fined, dishonorably discharged, or court marshaled.418,623,1069 Reservists and
National Guardsmen were reported to be leaving the military or changing their duty status to avoid taking
the vaccine.231,1680 The issue has been fought in court cases for nearly a decade, resulting in the vaccine
moving back and forth between mandatory and voluntary status.382,1773 An often cited reason for
questioning the safety of the anthrax vaccine has been its putative role as a cause of Gulf War illness. But
a detailed consideration of available evidence that supports or refutes this assertion has not generally been
provided in the debate.
Characteristics of the anthrax vaccine used in the Gulf War. The anthrax vaccine licensed for
use in the U.S. was developed in the 1950s. The U.S. vaccine, referred to as anthrax vaccine adsorbed
(AVA), is a cell-free filtrate of an unencapsulated strain of anthrax, adsorbed onto aluminum hydroxide.
Its immunogenic component is protective antigen (PA), one of three proteins produced by the anthrax
bacillus that contribute to its toxic effects. Aluminum hydroxide acts as an adjuvant to boost the body’s
immune response to the vaccine. Although disputed by nonmilitary observers,977 the Department of
Defense has consistently maintained that all anthrax vaccine used in the Gulf War was manufactured and
supplied by the Michigan Department of Public Health (MDPH), which had been producing AVA since
1970. In 1995, the vaccine manufacturing division of MDPH became known as the Michigan Biological
Products Institute (MBPI). MBPI was sold in 1998 to the private company, Bioport. Bioport is currently
a subsidiary of Emergent Biosolutions, which continues to manufacture AVA for the U.S. military under
the trade name BioThrax.
It has been necessary for the Committee to distinguish the large amount of information now available on
the anthrax vaccine—pro and con—from the more limited amount of information specifically relevant to
anthrax vaccine and the health of Gulf War veterans. An important first question, which the Committee
was not able to fully answer, concerns the extent to which research on adverse effects of the U.S. anthrax
vaccine, largely conducted prior to 1972 and again after 1998, can be applied to the anthrax vaccine given
to Gulf War veterans. There are many unknowns surrounding the anthrax vaccine provided at the time of
the Gulf War. This includes a number of indications that AVA has not been an unvarying product with a
risk profile that can be assumed to be the same before, during, and after the Gulf War.
The anthrax vaccine used during the Gulf War was the general type developed and tested in the 1950s,
but modifications were made in vaccine components and production methods over the years, including
major changes made between the 1950s efficacy trial and vaccine licensure in 1970.1009,1678 Specific
changes in the manufacturing process were also made by MDPH in 1990, just prior to the Gulf War, to
meet the military’s increased demand. At that time, MDPH changed from glass to stainless steel
fermenters and substituted nylon filters for the ceramic filters previously used.680,1678 The changes sped
up processing time and increased production volume for a given lot, allowing more vaccine to be
produced in a shorter time period.1678 No information is available from testing done by MDPH at the time
of these changes, however, to determine possible effects on the vaccine. An investigation by the General

Vaccines and Gulf War Illness  107

Accounting Office (GAO, now the Government Accountability Office) suggested that the filter changes
could result in higher levels of proteins in the vaccines, and that MDPH did not test for anthrax proteins
edema factor (EF) or lethal factor (LF). The GAO also reported that results of an unpublished Army
study, conducted in October 1990, found as much as a 100-fold increase in the level of PA in the vaccine
after the filter change.1678
It is likely that some of the vaccine lots distributed in the Gulf War were manufactured prior to the 1990
production changes, and some after, raising the possibility of differences among lots given to Gulf War
military personnel. Earlier studies, for example, had indicated that AVA lots produced in the 1980s
contained detectable amounts of LF and EF.513,915 The type of filters used in the Michigan production
plant were again changed in 1997, to a polyvinylidene filter.1678 Therefore, vaccine lots produced in the
late 1980s and after the 1990 filter changes might both have differed from vaccine produced after the
1997 filter changes and also from lots produced after extensive changes were made in the Michigan
production facility in 1998 and 1999.
Several reports have indicated that acute reaction rates to the Michigan-produced anthrax vaccine did vary
between lots. For example, data collected by CDC between 1967 and 1972 in support of AVA licensure
identified significant lot-to-lot variation in rates of acute reactogenicity.680,1009 Similarly, adverse
reactions reported by 1,583 workers who received anthrax vaccine at Fort Detrick between 1973 and 1999
also varied significantly by lot.1213 Of the 32 anthrax vaccine lots used over the 26 year period, highest
injection site reaction rates were reported for lots numbered 10, FAV001, FAV004, FAV006 and
FAV008. This is of particular interest, since anthrax vaccine lots FAV001, FAV004, and FAV006 were
also given to Gulf War troops during the war, and lot FAV008 was manufactured at about the same time
as lots given to Gulf War troops.589,1622
There are other distinctions potentially applicable to Gulf War-era anthrax vaccine. The vaccine is
temperature sensitive, and must be kept between two and eight degrees Celsius.138 Reports have
described the challenges involved in maintaining a high-quality system for packaging and transporting the
vaccine to ensure it is maintained at proper temperatures.453,1676 After the 1991 Gulf War cease fire, for
example, DOD reports that all unused anthrax vaccine stocks were stored at an Army medical supply
facility in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Refrigeration malfunctions at the facility in April and May 1991
prompted Army officials to recommend that the vaccine be disposed of, rather than returned to the
U.S.1622 In 1999, DOD had to destroy a shipment of 20,000 vials of anthrax vaccine delivered to a U.S.
base in Germany because of vaccine degradation caused in shipment. Since that time, an improved
system for packaging and transporting AVA was jointly developed by DOD and Bioport.1676 But during
the Gulf War, it is possible that some vaccine was affected by problems during shipment, storage, or
distribution under the difficult circumstances of wartime, mass inoculations, and the harsh desert
environment.
Although there are many sources of possible variability in the anthrax vaccine used in the Gulf War, there
is little reliable information to indicate whether or how the anthrax vaccine given to Gulf War veterans
was actually affected by any of these circumstances. So the question of whether effects of AVA received
in the Gulf War can reliably be deduced from studies of vaccine produced in the years before the war, or
in more recent years, remains open. If the anthrax vaccine given to Gulf War troops varied in important
ways from AVA produced in recent years, adverse effects data from recent studies would tell us little
about adverse effects of anthrax vaccine given to Gulf War veterans. If there were problems with specific
shipments or lots of the vaccine used during the war, Gulf War veterans or other subgroups who received
those lots might be affected by problems not typical of vaccine recipients overall, problems that could go
undetected when all Gulf War veterans are assessed as a single group.
Quality control issues related to vaccine production at the Michigan facility. U.S. FDA
regulations require any vaccine lot approved for distribution to pass specific tests that demonstrate the

108  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

lot’s purity, potency, sterility, and safety. The anthrax vaccine has a three year shelf life, but the
manufacturer may request three year extensions of the expiration date, after retesting and demonstrating
the lot’s potency.1676 As mentioned, FDA identified multiple violations and problems in MBPI/Bioport’s
production facility in the late 1990s. But little quality control information is available on anthrax vaccine
produced by MDPH at the time of the Gulf War. There were no FDA inspections of the MDPH anthrax
vaccine production facility prior to 1993. Department of Defense inspections, however, identified
multiple problems in the MDPH anthrax vaccine production process in 1992, including a lack of stability
studies.1674
In 1993 and 1995, FDA inspections at MBPI revealed a number of problems and violations in product
lines unrelated to anthrax vaccine.680 Additional problems were noted between 1996 and 1998, some of
which did relate to anthrax vaccine production and testing. For example, 1998 FDA inspections
identified significant violations related to stability testing, potency testing, assigning expiration dates, and
justification for redating expired anthrax vaccine lots that resulted in MBPI quarantining several lots.
FDA issued warnings during this period, and a 1997 notice to revoke MBPI’s license. 680,1665
MBPI voluntarily ceased vaccine production in January 1998 to undergo extensive plant renovations that
had been previously planned. The facility transferred ownership to Bioport in September 1998. After
renovations were completed, the production facility and newly produced vaccine were required to
undergo detailed testing and FDA review before full production could resume, and before newlymanufactured vaccine was released for distribution. All plans, processes, and facilities related to
production of the anthrax vaccine received final FDA approval in January, 2002.680
Production changes in the U.S. anthrax vaccine before and at the time of the Gulf War, lot-to-lot variation
documented before and after the Gulf War, production violations after the Gulf War, and extensive
improvements in the manufacturing process since 1998 all contribute to the Committee’s observation that
health effects potentially related to AVA given to Gulf War veterans may not be reflected by vaccine
studies conducted prior to 1972 and, again, after 1998. However, any identified patterns of health
problems that relate to AVA more generally, over different periods of time, may be informative about the
potential for anthrax vaccine to have contributed to ill health in Gulf War veterans. Therefore, the
Committee reviewed available research concerning acute reactogenicity and longer-term health effects of
the anthrax vaccine.
Short and long-term health effects of AVA. Unwanted side effects of vaccines can be due to
antigens used in the vaccine or to other vaccine components such as adjuvants, preservatives, or
contaminants. Since the military implemented its anthrax vaccination program, a growing number of
studies and monitoring efforts have provided data on acute adverse reactions associated with the anthrax
vaccine. There has also been more information available related to longer-term health outcomes in AVA
recipients. Thus far, however, longer-term studies have focused primarily on large health services
datasets that provide information on hospitalizations, clinic visits, and disability for diagnosed conditions.
While these represent an important step forward in understanding possible longer-term health effects of
the anthrax vaccine, such studies provide few insights concerning symptom rates and undiagnosed
multisymptom conditions.
Until recent years, the only controlled clinical trial of AVA was a study conducted between 1955 and
1959 that compared rates of anthrax among 1,249 vaccinated and unvaccinated workers in four goat hair
mills.162 Investigators reported that 35 percent of vaccine recipients had acute, local reactions to the
vaccine over the course of the vaccination series, with less than three percent characterized as severe.
The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) also provided unpublished data in support of
licensure of the anthrax vaccine in 1970. Those data, described in a 2002 IOM report, indicate that
among the nearly 7,000 people vaccinated, eight percent had mild reactions and 0.2 percent had severe

Vaccines and Gulf War Illness  109

Table 4. Studies Identifying Rates of Acute Adverse Reactions to the U.S. Anthrax Vaccine

Injection Site Reactions
Study

%
All

Follow up

%
Women

Systemic Reactions
%
Men

%
All

%
Women

%
Men

0.7%
0.2%

0.3%
<0.1%

11%
8%
7%

9%
10%
3%

Clinical trial of 1,249
Active,
mill workers, 1955-1959162 48 hours

any
red < 5 cm
red > 5 cm

35%
30%
5%

any

0.2%

CDC surveillance of 6,895 Active,
AVA recipients 196748 hours
1972138,680

any
mild
moderate
severe

10%
9%
1%
<0.2%

any

<0.06%

Reanalysis of CDC data
on 1,749 AVA recipients
1967-19721009

any
mild
moderate
severe

28%
24%
3%
0.2%

1,583 Fort Detrick lab
Passive,
workers who received AVA “short term”
1973-19991213

any
induration
erythema
tenderness

3.6%
2.8%
2.5%
1.7%

Fort Bragg booster study,
452 men received AVA
and BT boosters 199219941214

any

26%

Fort Detrick dosing study, Active,
101 volunteers received 1- 1 month
3 doses AVA subQ
19981214,1215

tenderness
nodule
erythema

70%
38%
36%

GAO survey of 311 Air
Active,
Guard and reservists in
duration not
2000 who received AVA1680 specified

any
burning
knot
red > 2.5 in

76%
60%
55%
19%

2,824 Army personnel in Active,
Korea, 1998-1999612
symptoms
recorded at
next dose

any*
knot
red > 5 cm

68%
58%
11%

40%
28%
4%

pain
malaise
fever

19%
15%
2%

10%
6%
1%

Tripler Army Medical
Center, 601 healthcare
personnel 1998-20001754

lump*
soreness
red > 5 cm

90%
80%
41%

64%
66%
17%

myalgia
fatigue
headache

47%
36%
33%

41%
22%
17%

Active,
48 hours

Active,
1 month

Active,
1-2 weeks

48 Fort Lewis ROTC
Active,
cadets, received standard “few days”
dose AVA in 2000543

sore arm*
lump
swelling

48%*

16%*

6.4%
6.3%
3.6%

2.0%
1.7%
1.3%

84%
63%
63%

63%
24%
22%

0.6%
0.3%
0.2%

any
headache
fever

1%
0.4%
0.1%

any
myalgia
rash
headache

45%
31%
17%
17%

headache
malaise
myalgia
any
joint pain
fatigue
fever

83%
42%
42%

Abbreviations: AVA=anthrax vaccine adsorbed; BT = botulinum toxoid; subQ = subcutaneous
Note: *reaction rates after initial dose

110  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

any
fever
headache

fever
tiredness
headache

24%
16%
12%
8%

8%
0%
0%

reactions.680 Recently, CDC investigators reanalyzed a subset of those data, using original reporting
forms for 1,749 individuals, and found that local, mostly mild reactions had occurred with 28 percent of
the doses, and that women were nearly three times as likely as men to have had adverse reactions.1009
The Committee reviewed these, and more recent studies to evaluate rates of acute reactions to the anthrax
vaccine, as summarized in Table 4. Although such studies rarely provide information on vaccine
reactions that persisted longer than a few days, acute reactions may be relevant to chronic health problems
affecting Gulf War veterans. A direct connection is suggested by two Gulf War studies indicating that
veterans who experienced acute reactions to deployment-related vaccines were more likely to be in poor
health years after the war.1374,1698
As shown in Table 4, reported rates of both local and systemic reactions were markedly higher among
vaccine recipients evaluated after 1998 than groups evaluated in the 1950s-1970s. The only exception is
the study of laboratory workers at Fort Detrick, which relied on passive surveillance rather than actively
querying individuals about vaccine reactions, and included some individuals who received anthrax
vaccine produced in the 1960s or 1970s. Studies of AVA recipients have consistently reported that
significantly higher proportions of women than men have localized reactions to AVA. Several studies
have also reported higher rates of systemic reactions in women.612,1213,1754
Overall, local reaction rates in post-1998 vaccine studies were extremely high, generally affecting 70-80
percent of recipients. Systemic reactions were also much higher than in early studies. Pre-1972 reports
had indicated that fewer than one percent of AVA recipients experienced systemic reactions. Post 1998
studies, however, typically reported that 10-40 percent of vaccine recipients experienced systemic
reactions. It is not clear why adverse reactions have been reported at dramatically higher rates in recent
studies. It could be that the current AVA is more reactogenic than formulations used in the 1960s and
1970s. Alternatively, the differences may relate to how data were collected, that is, the recent use of
interviews or questionnaires that proactively query vaccine recipients about specific problems, rather than
a passive process that requires individuals to come forward to identify complaints.
The 2002 IOM report on AVA provides data from a commissioned report summarizing rates of adverse
reactions identified in clinical trials of other vaccines, for comparison to adverse reactions reported for
AVA.680 The IOM report concluded that rates of acute adverse reactions to AVA appeared comparable to
other vaccines. As shown in Table 4, however, recently published studies indicate that AVA is associated
with extremely high rates of acute, local reactions, higher than is typical of other vaccines.
Earlier committee reports often observed that no studies had provided information on long-term health
outcomes in relation to receipt of AVA or other vaccines. But in recent years, military studies have begun
to address this issue, largely through research involving the use of large military health services datasets.
Studies providing information on longer-term health outcomes in relation to receipt of anthrax vaccine are
summarized in Table 5. Studies that specifically evaluated the health of Gulf War veterans in relation to
receipt of the anthrax vaccine are discussed in a later section.
As shown in Table 5, data linkage studies that evaluated hospitalizations, outpatient visits, and disability
claims for diagnosed conditions six weeks to four years after vaccination have found few differences
between anthrax vaccine recipients and nonrecipients. In considering results of these large data linkage
studies, however, it is important to keep in mind potentially important biases. These include: (1) the
generally better fitness level of “combat ready” personnel most likely to have received the anthrax
vaccine and likelihood that those with identified disabilities would not have received AVA, (2) the
inclusion of only military hospitalizations, and (3) follow-up periods that were insufficient to detect
conditions associated with long latency.680,1370,1514,1760 No studies have actively assessed rates of
symptoms or multisymptom illness months or years after receipt of the anthrax vaccine.

Vaccines and Gulf War Illness  111

Table 5. Studies Assessing Longer-term Health Outcomes
Following Receipt of U.S. Anthrax Vaccine

Study

Follow up

Outcomes

Long-term follow up of 155 Fort Detrick workers
who received multiple vaccines 1943-1969,
including multiple doses of AVA, compared to 265
community controls1212

Up to 43 years

No differences in diagnosed medical conditions. Significantly more
AVA recipients reported fatigue and had abnormal lab values for
several measures, including a higher proportion (12% vs. 4%) with
monoclonal gammopathies.

Comparison of outpatient visits among 4,045 AVA
recipients at Langley AFB to 1,132 unvaccinated
personnel deployed to southwest Asia 199819991263

6 month period
after return from
deployment

No differences in total number of outpatient diagnoses or any
specific diagnoses in vaccinated vs. unvaccinated.

1998 military hospitalizations among 159,386
active duty AVA recipients compared to
nonrecipients1355

0-42 days after
vaccination

Vaccinated personnel sign. less likely to be hospitalized overall,
and for multiple diagnostic categories.

Retrospective medical chart review of 403
Canadian military personnel who received AVA in
1998, compared to 445 who did not655

8 month period
after vaccine
received

Overall, groups similar in total number of symptoms and diagnoses;
minor increases in symptoms and diagnoses post-deployment in
both groups.

Comparison of general health status and
healthcare visits among 301 AVA recipients and
639 unvaccinated personnel at Tripler Army base
in 20001754

Up to 2 years
following receipt
of 1st vaccine

Most outcomes similar in vaccinated and unvaccinated. Vaccinated
women were 4 times as likely to report general health as fair or
poor (6.6% vs.1.5%); sign. fewer mental health visits in vaccinated.

CDC study of postal and government workers
who received antibiotics only (n=948) or
antibiotics with AVA (n=165) following possible
exposure to anthrax in 2001973,1541

2 months active,
then passive

43-46% of AVA recipients reported at least one adverse event,
similar for those who did/did not receive AVA. Four conditions sign.
lower in AVA group. No serious adverse events reported by AVA
recipients.

Case control study of AVA as a risk factor in
1,131 cases of optic neuritis, using DMSS data
1998-20031180

6-18 weeks after
vaccination

No association between optic neuritis and receiving AVA or number
of doses of AVA.

Comparison of DMSS data on outpatient visits
and hospitalizations for 843 diagnoses among 2
million individuals in “prevaccination” and
“postvaccination” cohorts; 23% received AVA
during 3 year observation period865

1 day-21 months
after vaccination

Overall, fewer hospitalizations and outpatient visits in postvaccination cohort. Higher number of postvaccination
hospitalizations for 17 diagnoses and outpatient visits for 34
diagnoses—fewer than expected by chance, partially explained by
confounding.

Comparison of disability claims for AVA recipients
and nonrecipients among 716,833 Army
personnel; 22% received AVA1514

1 day-4 years
after vaccination

Overall, rate of disability evaluations similar for vaccinated and
unvaccinated. No sign. differences related to neurological or
musculoskeletal conditions. Older AVA lots associated with slightly
higher disability than newer lots.

Post-vaccination military hospitalizations among
170,723 active duty AVA recipients deployed
1998-2001, compared to pre-vaccination
hospitalizations1760

0-42 days after
vaccination

Overall, vaccinated personnel sign. less likely to be hospitalized
than unvaccinated for any cause; no increases in any diagnostic
categories.

Health status and hospitalizations among 67,796
military personnel enrolled in the Millennium
Cohort Study1427

Time after
receipt of AVA
not specified

AVA recipients and nonrecipients were similar on all SF36
measures and rates of hospitalization for any cause.

Abbreviations: AVA = anthrax vaccine adsorbed, DMSS = Defense Medical Surveillance System, sign. = statistically significantly

112  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

One data linkage study utilized the Defense Medical Surveillance System (DMSS) to evaluate
hospitalizations and outpatient visits 1998-2000 in military medical facilities worldwide in personnel who
received AVA, compared with a “prevaccination cohort” of personnel who had not yet been
vaccinated.865 Overall hospitalization and clinic visit rates were higher in the prevaccination cohort,
reflecting generally better health among personnel who receive immunizations and deploy overseas. Of
the 843 diagnoses evaluated, significantly higher post-vaccination hospitalization rates were identified for
17 conditions, fewer than the number expected by chance.680 Some differences were explainable by
confounding, for example, higher rates of malaria identified after vaccination, reflecting AVA received
prior to deployment to regions where personnel were at increased risk for malaria. None of the 40
diagnoses reported to VAERS after receipt of AVA were associated with significantly higher
hospitalization rates. However, the post vaccination cohort had a nonsignificant increase in
hospitalization for multiple sclerosis (RR=1.3) Unpublished data provided to the IOM anthrax vaccine
committee indicated that this elevation was limited to women AVA recipients, an observation the panel
considered a preliminary “signal” that warranted continued monitoring.680
The military’s current policy is not to give the vaccine to pregnant women, based on early indications of a
possible increase in birth defects among women who received AVA in the first trimester of
pregnancy.138,221,680 A large study has recently been reported by the U.S. Naval Health Research Center
that used computerized records to identify all birth defects identified in the first year of life among over
115,000 live births to women service members between 1998 and 2004. Women who received AVA in
the first trimester of pregnancy had a significant 20 percent greater risk for having children with birth
defects, compared to those who had not received the vaccine.1335 Atrial septal defects were the only
specific birth defect category significantly associated with first trimester receipt of the vaccine. Smaller
studies have found no association between receipt of AVA and number of pregnancies, birth outcomes, or
male fertility measures.217,1785
Individual cases and VAERS reports. Several published case reports have described medical
conditions that developed in individuals after they received the anthrax vaccine. These have included
immediate and delayed hypersensitivity reactions,533,971,1521,1544 rheumatoid arthritis,1711 optic neuritis,797
lymphocytic vasculitis,1085 and oral pemphigus vulgaris, an autoimmune condition associated with oral
blisters and ulcers.1080
As previously described, the military requires that all serious adverse reactions to vaccines, specifically
those requiring hospitalization or those resulting in lost duty for more than 24 hours, be reported to
VAERS. It appears that vaccine reactions are sometimes not reported to VAERS, however, for reasons
that include reticence of military personnel to identify health problems and lack of familiarity with the
reporting process.1680 Among the 600 healthcare personnel evaluated in the Tripler Army survey after
receiving the anthrax vaccine, five events were reported to VAERS. This included one female with MRI
indications of demyelinating disease within one week of her fourth shot who was eventually diagnosed
with multiple sclerosis.1754 Two studies have provided summary analyses of VAERS data in relation to
AVA, and found more adverse reactions involving joint symptoms and gastrointestinal problems than
have been reported for other vaccines.477,478
Determining whether the anthrax vaccine is the primary cause of conditions that develop in temporal
proximity to receipt of the vaccine can be difficult, however.571,1392 At the request of the Army Surgeon
General, the Department of Health and Human Services appointed an advisory panel of civilian
physicians and scientists, the Anthrax Vaccine Expert Committee (AVEC), to advise on the likelihood
that individual adverse events reported to VAERS were caused by the anthrax vaccine.1391 Over the first
four years of the AVIP program, after 500,000 military personnel had received the anthrax vaccine, the
AVEC reported that 1,841 reports involving 3,991 adverse events had been submitted to VAERS.1390 The
most commonly reported problems involved extended areas of inflammation and redness at the injection
site, rash elsewhere on the body, malaise/fatigue, arthralgia, and headache. Forty-four reports described

Vaccines and Gulf War Illness  113

an arthralgia-related multisymptom illness, defined as including arthralgia and two or more of the
following: malaise/fatigue, paresthesia, memory loss, sleep disorder, and altered mentation. One hundred
forty-seven events were classified as serious or medically important. These included five cases of an
anaphylactic-type reaction, four cases of Guillain-Barré syndrome, three cases of multiple sclerosis, two
cases each of seizure, diabetes, and Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, and one case each of lupus, rheumatoid
arthritis, and fibromyalgia. Of the 147 serious/medically important events, 26 were identified as possibly,
probably, or certainly the result of the vaccine. Others were identified as unlikely, unrelated, or
unclassifiable. Of the six deaths reported, four were identified as unrelated to the vaccine, and two were
unclassifiable. The AVEC concluded that the evidence indicates that AVA was not associated with an
unusually high rate of serious adverse events and identified no pattern of problems with specific lots.
All cases of serious medical conditions that develop after receipt of the anthrax vaccine, are, of course, of
great concern. Individuals who develop disease as a result of vaccines received for military service are
entitled to have their condition acknowledged and their health needs addressed by DOD and/or VA. But
there is no indication from research studies conducted thus far that anthrax vaccine is associated with an
increased risk of any specific chronic medical condition—diagnosed or undiagnosed. Given the
limitations of studies conducted to date, however, it cannot be said with certainty whether or not AVA is
associated with excess rates of undiagnosed multisymptom conditions or with serious diagnosed diseases
of longer latency periods that would not be detected in short-term studies of military hospitalizations and
clinic visits. Therefore, it is still important that individuals who received AVA be monitored for an
extended period to carefully ascertain rates of both multisymptom illness and diagnosed diseases.
Ongoing anthrax vaccine research. Government officials have generally considered the U.S.
anthrax vaccine to be both safe and effective.459,514 But the extended dosing schedule required, and
concerns about the vaccine’s reactogenicity have prompted efforts to develop improved anthrax vaccines,
as well as alternate dosing methods and schedules for the current vaccine.679,914,968,1213 Multiple projects
have been funded by the military, as well as by other agencies in connection with Project Bioshield.
Studies to ascertain safety and immunogenicity of a next-generation recombinant PA anthrax vaccine
continue, despite recent contract and production problems.1334 The U.S. Centers for Disease Control is
currently sponsoring a multifaceted program to evaluate AVA effectiveness, adverse effects, and optimal
dosing/scheduling. The program includes a human trial to determine reactogenicity and immunogenicity
resulting from current and alternate dosing methods, a primate trial to determine vaccine immunogenicity,
and laboratory studies to determine biological processes associated with the development of anthrax.
Additional objectives include long-term follow-up of previously immunized populations.681
Other Vaccines Given to Gulf War Troops
Although the anthrax vaccine has been the primary vaccine-related issue raised in connection with Gulf
War illness, Gulf War veterans received many other immunizations prior to and during deployment.
There is little or no documented evidence regarding associations between any of these vaccines and longterm health outcomes, including symptom complexes like those affecting Gulf War veterans.
Botulinum toxoid (BT). Seven different toxins are produced by strains of the bacterium Clostridium
botulinum. These extremely toxic substances affect peripheral nerves at extremely low doses, causing
death by paralysis and respiratory failure. Animal studies have assessed the effectiveness of different
individual and combination toxoid vaccines, but as is generally the case, provide limited information on
adverse reactions and no information on long-term effects. The pentavalent BT vaccine used in the Gulf
War contains aluminum phosphate as an adjuvant. It requires three injections, given over 12 weeks, with
annual boosters thereafter. This vaccine has still not been licensed, and is still designated by FDA as
investigational. In studies of the efficacy of this and other pentavalent BT vaccines conducted in the
1960s, investigators reported there were few problems with acute, local reactions and no problems with

114  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

systemic or severe reactions.439,440 The IOM report on vaccines also describes an unpublished study,
conducted by the Army, of two BT vaccine formulations given to 36 individuals.679 Both formulations,
containing different levels of formaldehyde, produced similar rates of local reactions (15-18%), and no
severe reactions. CDC monitoring data for BT recipients reportedly found that seven percent of the
nearly 17,000 doses administered prior to 1997 were associated with a moderate local reaction and 0.4
percent with a severe reaction. These events were described as being of limited duration.679
The agreement that allowed BT to be given to personnel in the Gulf War stipulated that records be kept of
who received the vaccine and that side effects be monitored, but neither were effectively carried out.462 A
1995 IOM report provided results of a postcard survey of 123 Marines at Camp Pendleton who had
received BT during the Gulf War. Of the 121 Marines who responded, 12 percent reported they had had a
mild local reaction to the vaccine, 14 percent reported pain that temporarily limited the use of the
vaccinated arm, and 2.5 percent reported some type of systemic reaction. No reactions were associated
with serious problems or limited duty.675
Additional vaccines given to military personnel. As shown in Tables 1 and 2, Gulf War veterans
received many different types of vaccines before and during deployment. Little concern has been raised
about vaccines other than anthrax and BT, however. Most vaccines administered at the time of the Gulf
War had been in use for many years, by both military and civilian populations. For example, yellow fever
vaccine has been widely used by the military and by civilians in endemic areas for decades, and is
considered to have an acceptable safety profile.445,1060 Reactions to this vaccine are generally mild
(headache, low-grade fever, and myalgia) and can affect up to 25 percent of recipients.964 In recent years,
neurological conditions have been reported to VAERS in relation to receipt of the yellow fever vaccine,
including four cases of encephalitis, four cases of Guillain-Barré syndrome, and three cases of
demyelinating disease reported between 2001 and 2006.964
Other vaccines used in the war are also associated with transient, local effects, and with rare cases of
serious systemic and/or chronic effects.550 Similarly, immune globulin injections, used to prevent
hepatitis A in the Gulf War, can produce transient local effects and, infrequently, more serious effects.219
Although widely considered to be safe, little research information is available concerning long term
effects of these vaccines, individually or in combination.
Vaccine Adjuvants
The presence of anti-squalene antibodies in ill people and the absence of the antibodies in
healthy people is the first hard laboratory evidence that Gulf War illness is what some might
refer to as a ‘real disease.’ It is also the first evidence that an abnormal immunological
response is under way in Gulf War illness patients.
-- Dr. Robert Garry, statement for 2002 Congressional hearing 474

Adjuvants are substances added to vaccines to enhance the immune response triggered by the vaccine.
Although only aluminum-based adjuvants are licensed for use in the U.S., many types of adjuvants have
been developed and tested. Different adjuvants produce different types and strengths of immune
stimulation, and have different adverse reaction profiles.548,963 In 1997, a series of magazine articles
reported that Gulf War illness had been linked to autoimmune abnormalities caused by the use of an
unlicensed adjuvant containing squalene in a vaccine given to military personnel.1299 The reporter
described evidence provided by Dr. Pamela Asa, a Tennessee immunologist in private practice, who had
tested the blood of a number of ill veterans and found high levels of antibodies to squalene. These reports
spurred a major controversy, and the squalene theory of Gulf War illness became the subject of
government inquiries, scientific articles, panel reviews, and a high profile book published by an
investigative journalist.679,977,1675,1690

Vaccines and Gulf War Illness  115

The squalene controversy has been multifaceted, raising such diverse questions as whether the
government illegally used an experimental vaccine adjuvant during the Gulf War, whether squalene
adjuvants cause the types of symptoms seen in Gulf War veterans, and whether the tests used to detect
squalene antibodies are reliable. The Committee reviewed available evidence concerning these and other
questions. For the Committee’s purposes, however, a single question is primary, that is, whether there is
evidence that symptomatic Gulf War veterans have abnormally high levels of circulating squalene
antibodies. Despite the attention given to the squalene issue over the past decade by scientists and
government agencies, no clear answer to this question has emerged.
Squalene antibodies in ill veterans. Although Dr. Asa is reported to first have broached the subject
of adjuvant-induced illness in Gulf War veterans with military officials in 1994,977,1675 the first study that
addressed the issue was published in 2000. In the study, Dr. Asa and colleagues at Tulane University
tested for IgG antibodies to squalene in two Gulf War veteran groups, using an assay developed at
Tulane. In the first group, blinded analyses were conducted on sera from 38 sick and 12 healthy Gulf
War veterans. Symptomatic Gulf War veterans in the study all met the CDC definition of chronic
multisymptom illness, but more than a third also had serious diagnosed conditions such as ALS, lupus,
and multiple sclerosis.69 Results indicated that 36 of the 38 sick veterans (95%) tested positive for
squalene antibodies, but none of the 12 healthy veterans tested positive. An additional six symptomatic
Gulf War era veterans who had received vaccines for deployment, but had not actually deployed, also
tested positive.
The second set of analyses were not blinded. The samples tested included 86 Gulf War veterans of
undetermined health status and 48 blood donors from the general population. Sixty-nine percent of the
Gulf War veterans tested positive for squalene antibodies, but only five percent of the community blood
donors were positive. By comparison, few patients from separate groups of lupus patients and breast
implant recipients tested positive for squalene antibodies.69
In a second paper, Dr. Asa and her Tulane collaborators reported elevated levels of squalene antibodies
among military personnel who had received the anthrax vaccine after 1997, as part of DOD’s anthrax
vaccine immunization program (AVIP). About half of the 25 vaccine recipients in the sample were
symptomatic, although case status was not explicitly defined. Thirty-two percent of vaccine recipients
tested positive for squalene antibodies, compared to only 16 percent of matched, nonmilitary controls.
Further analyses indicated that all individuals with squalene antibodies had received anthrax vaccine from
one of five specific lots. Among the 17 individuals who received vaccine from those lots, 76 percent
were symptomatic and 47 percent had squalene antibodies. None of the eight veterans vaccinated with
other lots were symptomatic or had squalene antibodies.70
These studies were reported to have been done with no external funding and, in a number of ways, were
not optimally designed.1572 Samples were small, self-selected, and poorly defined. For example, some
Gulf War multisymptom illness cases in the first study had concurrent autoimmune diseases, while some
controls had fibromyalgia or chronic fatigue; some findings came from unblinded analyses of sera
obtained from poorly characterized patients. Still, study results were intriguing and raised a hypothesis
that could be further evaluated in more definitive studies. Identification of an objective test that
distinguished a sizable proportion of symptomatic from healthy Gulf War veterans was potentially of
great importance as a diagnostic tool, and for providing possible insights concerning pathophysiological
processes and even treatments for ill veterans.
Squalene antibody research at Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (WRAIR). After its
publication, the Asa/Tulane squalene antibody research was criticized by government scientists and
panels.45,679,1572 Critics questioned the idea that squalene, when injected, acted as an antigen, and whether
the assay used had actually detected antibodies to squalene. Within months, however, investigators at
Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (WRAIR) published research showing that squalene can act as

116  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

an antigen and that antibodies could be detected in a model system.981 A WRAIR high throughput
squalene antibody assay was developed by 2002,979 and subsequently used to evaluate squalene antibodies
in mice and humans. Human blood samples from three populations were evaluated: (1) retired laboratory
workers from Fort Detrick who had received multiple vaccines, including AVA, over many years, (2)
similarly aged community controls who had never received AVA, and (3) samples from an Army blood
center at Fort Knox, which primarily contained serum from young recruits.980
Squalene antibodies were detected in all of the groups tested. IgM antibodies were found in about one
third of both the Fort Detrick and community cohorts (37%, 32% respectively), but in significantly fewer
blood center samples (19%). IgG antibodies were found less frequently in the Fort Detrick and
community samples (7% and 15%, respectively), and were not detected at all in the Army blood center
samples. Investigators suggested that the prevalence of squalene antibodies increases with age, since the
mean age of Fort Detrick volunteers was 68, and the blood center samples were predominantly from
individuals 18-21 years of age. This was supported by studies in mice demonstrating a significant
increase in circulating squalene antibodies with age.980
The WRAIR studies have been extremely useful, developing a well-validated assay and demonstrating
that squalene antibodies are detectable in human serum at rates that may increase with age. However, this
research did not address the core issue raised by the Asa/Tulane studies concerning Gulf War illness.
That is, the WRAIR studies did not measure IgG squalene antibodies in individuals who received
vaccines postulated to contain squalene. Nor did they compare squalene antibody levels in symptomatic
versus healthy Gulf War veterans. It is important to note, also, that the WRAIR and Asa/Tulane studies
provided comparable results concerning “background” rates of squalene IgG antibodies in humans. The
WRAIR study identified IgG antibodies in 7-15 percent of individuals in the Fort Detrick and community
samples, similar to the 5-16 percent range identified in control populations in the two Asa studies.
Did anthrax vaccine used in the Gulf War contain a squalene adjuvant? Both DOD and NIH
have sponsored multiple animal studies and human trials of vaccines with experimental adjuvants
containing squalene and squalane, a hydrogenated variant of squalene. This includes DOD-sponsored
animal studies of anthrax vaccine formulations with squalene-containing adjuvants begun in 1987, and
two small DOD-sponsored human trials of a malaria vaccine that were underway before the Gulf War.1675
It has been argued that, given the deadly threat posed by anthrax, the addition of a potent adjuvant to
AVA at the time of the Gulf War might have been considered a responsible decision, to enhance the
immunogenicity provided by the vaccine in the limited time available in the run up to the war. Facing
similar time constraints, British officials opted to use the pertussis vaccine to adjuvanate the U.K. anthrax
vaccine. But U.S. government reports have consistently maintained that DOD officials decided against
using novel adjuvants with the anthrax vaccine because of restrictions and delays required for FDA
licensure of an altered vaccine formulation.1622,1675
Still, given the concern surrounding the issue, several investigations were undertaken to determine
whether or not there was squalene in the U.S. anthrax vaccine. The Department of Defense
commissioned Stanford Research Institute International (SRI) to develop an assay capable of detecting
squalene in anthrax vaccine. The initial assay could detect squalene at levels of 140 parts per billion,
equal to 70 ng. of squalene per 0.5 ml. AVA dose. SRI then tested samples from 17 lots of AVA,
including the five lots identified in the 2002 Asa study as being associated with excess levels of squalene
antibodies. No squalene was found in any of the lots tested.1459
In 2000, however, U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) officials announced that, using a more
sensitive assay, they had detected “trace” amounts of squalene, ranging from 10 to 83 parts per billion, in
each of five lots of anthrax vaccine tested, and also in lots of tetanus and diphtheria vaccines.984 The FDA
report verified that manufacturing records did not indicate that squalene had been added to the anthrax

Vaccines and Gulf War Illness  117

vaccine formulation, and concluded that the low levels detected were likely related to natural occurrence
or low-level contamination.1665 Subsequently, SRI developed a more sensitive assay, capable of
identifying squalene at the level of 1 ng. per 0.5 ml. dose of vaccine, and tested samples from 38 lots of
AVA, including seven lots reported to have been used during the Gulf War. All lots tested had been
produced by MDPH or Bioport, with expiration dates between 1982 and 2001. No squalene was detected
in 43 of the 44 lots tested, but an extremely low level was detected in three samples from lot FAV008 (19 ng. per ml.).1458 In contrast to the FDA findings, none of the suspect lots identified in the Asa/Tulane
studies were found to contain squalene.
Reports indicate that, when squalene-containing adjuvants are used as part of a vaccine formulation,
squalene is present at a concentration of 0.2 – 5.0 percent, or 1-25 mg. in a 0.5 ml. dose of vaccine.1458,1665
This is more than a million times the level of squalene detected in anthrax vaccines by FDA and SRI
testing. Whatever the source of the detected squalene, the FDA and SRI studies support the government’s
assertion that squalene-containing adjuvants were not added to the tested vaccine lots at levels generally
used for adjuvants. Some have speculated that even these very minute levels of squalene, less than the
level normally found in human blood, might be capable of stimulating reactions,977 but no studies have
evaluated this contention.
Health effects of squalene. Squalene is an oily substance that naturally occurs in plants and animals.
It is found in a variety of foods, lotions, and cosmetics. It is also used as a food supplement and has been
postulated to provide therapeutic benefits.225,787 In humans, squalene is synthesized by the liver as a
precursor to cholesterol, and circulates in the blood. Many substances that are ingested or found in the
blood, however, cannot be safely injected. Squalene, when injected, stimulates a nonspecific immune
response, making it a useful component of vaccine adjuvants.41,1218 The original theory relating anthrax
vaccine and squalene adjuvant to Gulf War illness suggested that veterans’ symptoms were autoimmune
in nature, that is, they were associated with autoantibodies stimulated by receipt of the vaccine.
Associations between autoimmune conditions and vaccines have long been postulated, including vaccines
against diptheria, tetanus, polio, and hepatitis B.1148,1404 In animal models, squalene has been used to
induce antibodies and precipitate diseases that simulate human autoimmune conditions, including
lupus847,1356 rheumatoid arthritis,213,618 and multiple sclerosis.114
No squalene-containing adjuvants are licensed for use in the U.S., but a number have been evaluated in
clinical studies. These include trials of vaccines for influenza, herpes simplex, and HIV.92,518,867,972,1675
MF59, an oil-in-water microemulsion, is the most widely used squalene-containing adjuvant. An
influenza vaccine containing MF59 has been licensed for use in European countries since 1997 and is
considered to have a good safety record.1217
A recent collaborative study between Italian and U.S. investigators suggests that receipt of squalenecontaining adjuvants may not stimulate elevated levels of squalene antibodies in humans.328 Using an
ELISA squalene antibody assay, investigators identified low-levels of squalene IgG antibodies in 79
percent of a sample of U.S. adults, and 26 percent of European adults who had not received vaccines
containing squalene. IgG antibodies to squalene were also detected at low levels in 94-100 percent of
European adults 65 years of age and over who participated in influenza vaccine trials, whether or not the
vaccine received in the trial contained MF59. Investigators concluded that low levels of circulating
squalene antibodies are commonly found in adults, and that squalene antibody levels are not affected by
receipt of vaccines containing squalene. Although interesting, these findings raise more questions than
they answer. No clear explanation is offered, for example, for the substantial differences in rates of
squalene antibody positivity in the three cohorts evaluated. Nor is there any explanation for why results
differed so dramatically from the two previous U.S. studies, which found IgG antibodies in fewer than 20
percent of adults studied.69,980

118  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Conclusions of special committees. Previous government committees and scientific panels have
focused on different aspects of the squalene issue. The theory was sometimes dismissed without detailed
consideration, based on DOD assertions that squalene was not added to the anthrax vaccine.1227,1690 Little
published research was available to earlier panels, so conclusions were usually based on commonsense
observations. The Presidential Special Oversight Board pointed out, for example, that low levels of
squalene had been found in diphtheria and tetanus vaccines, but no “Gulf War syndrome” issues had been
raised in relation to these vaccines.1232 An Institute of Medicine panel pointed out shortcomings in the
Asa/Tulane squalene antibody studies, and concluded they did not provide persuasive evidence that
squalene antibodies had been detected.679 The World Health Organization issued a statement on the
safety of squalene-containing adjuvants, citing the safety record of the 22 million doses of the Italian
influenza vaccine distributed since 1997.1812
Other adjuvants in Gulf War vaccines. Adjuvant issues relating to the anthrax vaccine have also
made headlines in the U.K. The British MOD acknowledged, in 1997, that pertussis vaccine had been
used to adjuvanate the anthrax vaccine given to British Gulf War troops, a decision that has also been
controversial.203,1551,1756 MOD officials have maintained that no vaccines containing squalene were given
to British troops. Tests conducted by an independent laboratory in 2001, sponsored by MOD, found no
squalene in 11 lots of the U.K. anthrax vaccine, nor in other types of vaccines given to British troops
during the Gulf War.1568
The U.S. Department of Defense has consistently maintained that all adjuvants in vaccines used during
the Gulf War were aluminum-based and FDA approved. Immunizations given to Gulf War veterans that
contained aluminum adjuvants included anthrax, BT, and tetanus-diptheria vaccines.1622 Aluminum
adjuvants have been used in vaccines for over 60 years, and are considered to have a good safety
record.711,909 Vaccines containing aluminum adjuvants have been extensively studied in humans and
animals for both effectiveness and adverse effects, but very little research has specifically looked at
neurological effects of vaccine adjuvants, an area of particular interest in relation to Gulf War illness.
A recent Canadian study evaluated long-term effects of both squalene and aluminum hydroxide adjuvants
on behavior and central nervous system tissues in a mouse model.1202 Using dosages comparable to those
used in human vaccines, animals received two injections, two weeks apart, of one of the adjuvants, both
adjuvants combined, or placebo. They were then evaluated using a variety of neurobehavioral tests over a
six month period, followed by histochemical analyses of brain and spinal cord tissues. Anti-squalene
antibodies were found in 20% of animals injected with placebo, 27% of those injected with aluminum,
40% of those injected with squalene, but only 10% of those injected with both adjuvants. Overall, the
aluminum adjuvant produced more adverse effects than placebo, squalene, or the combined adjuvants.
After six months, mice injected with the aluminum adjuvant exhibited significant declines in muscle
strength and endurance, and increased indicators of anxiety, compared to placebo. Aluminum adjuvant
was also associated with indicators of increased central nervous system inflammation and motor neuron
loss, as reflected by a significant increase (350%) in the number of reactive astrocytes in the lumbar
spinal cord and neuronal apoptosis in the motor cortex and spinal cord. Investigators concluded that their
findings were consistent with an association between aluminum adjuvants and neurological deficits,
including ALS. By contrast, squalene adjuvant was associated with fewer changes in brain and behavior,
none of which were statistically significant.
Vaccines containing aluminum hydroxide adjuvant have also been associated with the development of
macrophagic myofasciitis.486 This recently-identified condition is characterized by macrophage
infiltration of muscle tissue after receipt of vaccines.239,485 Patients develop arthromyalgias and fatigue,
among other symptoms, with one report indicating that about half of macrophagic myofasciitis patients
meet criteria for chronic fatigue syndrome.76

Vaccines and Gulf War Illness  119

Although squalene has been the primary adjuvant issue raised in relation to Gulf War veterans, no studies
have specifically linked receipt of squalene-containing adjuvants to biological processes or chronic
symptoms that parallel those affecting Gulf War veterans. In contrast, there are preliminary indicators,
from both human and animal studies, that aluminum hydroxide adjuvant may be associated with
neurological damage and chronic symptoms potentially relevant to the health of Gulf War veterans.
Primary Gulf War squalene antibody question unanswered. Eleven years after the squalene
controversy was first publicly raised, studies have addressed several related questions. Two laboratories
have assessed levels of squalene in selected lots of the U.S. anthrax vaccine, both yielding results that
support government assertions that a squalene-containing adjuvant was not added to those lots.
Additional studies have provided insights on detection of antibodies to squalene in humans and animals,
but have provided little indication that receipt of squalene-containing adjuvants results in chronic
production of squalene antibodies.
The observation from the Asa/Tulane studies that is most relevant to the health of Gulf War veterans,
however, has not been further evaluated. Their initial study, reported in 2000, indicated that symptomatic
Gulf War veterans had detectable levels of IgG antibodies to squalene, but that healthy veterans did not.
This raised a testable hypothesis concerning an objective measure of an immunological abnormality that
distinguished ill from healthy veterans. The Asa/Tulane studies may have correctly identified excess
rates of squalene antibodies in ill veterans, whether or not they were caused by vaccines, by vaccine
contamination, or by clandestine use of an unapproved adjuvant. It is important to determine whether the
observed association between squalene antibodies and Gulf War illness is supported, or refuted, by more
definitive research.
Health Effects of Receiving Multiple Vaccines
Most studies conducted to establish vaccine safety in humans evaluate vaccines individually. Studies that
evaluate receipt of more than one vaccine at the same time are generally concerned with changes in
vaccine effectiveness, but may also report on short term adverse effects. The Committee identified little
research that provides information on long-term effects of specific vaccine combinations, or numerous
vaccines received in a brief time span.512,675 Receipt of multiple vaccines together is fairly common,
however. Multiple immunizations are routinely given to infants and young children. Adults traveling
overseas also commonly receive multiple immunizations. Studies have assessed short term side effects
related to receipt of vaccine combinations in childhood and have generally reported little or no increase in
short-term reactogenicity.236,1453,1540 In civilians traveling to foreign countries, receipt of multiple
vaccines has also been reported as being well-tolerated, although the number who experience acute side
effects increases with the number of vaccines received.156,426 For many years, multiple vaccinations have
also been given to new military recruits and to troops preparing for overseas deployment.1523 Surprisingly
little information is available, either from studies or from monitoring programs, that quantifies short or
long-term adverse effects resulting from specific combinations of vaccines, or a large number of vaccines
received concurrently.
Some insights regarding effects of multiple vaccines received over a prolonged period of time have been
provided by a series of follow-up evaluations of laboratory workers at Fort Detrick, Maryland. These
workers received multiple immunizations as participants in vaccine studies conducted for the U.S.
biological weapons development and countermeasures program between 1943 and 1969.1211 The first
three assessments were conducted in 1958, 1965, and 1974. No abnormal excess of diagnosed diseases
affected the workers, but several indicators of a chronic inflammatory process were identified. These
included increased rates of leukocytosis and lymphocytosis, alterations in ratios of alpha and beta
globulins, and higher mean serum levels of hexosamine.1189,1190,1770

120  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

The most recent assessment, reported in 2004, evaluated 155 former workers who participated in a Fort
Detrick laboratory alumni gathering in 1996, and 265 age and gender-matched controls.1212 Fort Detrick
participants were evaluated an average of 43 years after their first program immunization. Individuals
had received different types and numbers of vaccines—a median of 154 each—during their years in the
program. For example, 142 of the 155 Fort Detrick workers had received multiple doses of anthrax
vaccine, an average of 23 doses per subject. Results indicated no differences in clinically diagnosed
diseases between workers and community controls. Fort Detrick workers reported their overall health
status to be slightly worse, however, and a higher proportion reported being fatigued. Several serum
parameters also differed between the groups. Most significantly, unspecified monoclonal proteins were
detected at elevated rates in the Fort Detrick workers. These gammopathies were not further characterized
and were not associated with identifiable disease, but have been linked in other studies with the
development of serious conditions, including multiple myeloma.851,852
The Fort Detrick studies provide an interesting look at the long-term health of selected individuals many
years after receiving a large number of vaccines. Overall, the studies indicate that receipt of repeated
doses of multiple vaccines over an extended period of time was not associated with identifiable disease,
but may produce persistent immune alterations in a subset of individuals. For several reasons, however,
these studies have limited relevance for understanding effects of multiple vaccines received for Gulf War
deployment. Of the over 3,000 original participants in the Fort Detrick program, those evaluated in
follow-up studies were a select group of volunteers. They would not have included, for example,
individuals who did not tolerate multiple vaccinations and withdrew from the program, those who had
died, or those not healthy enough to attend a social gathering many years after retirement.1211,1212 Unlike
the Fort Detrick program, Gulf War veterans received multiple vaccines over a brief period of time,
vaccines that differed from those given to Fort Detrick workers in the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s.
Animal studies of effects of vaccines combined with other Gulf War exposures. As part of
its Gulf War research effort, the British Ministry of Defence (MOD) sponsored a series of studies that
evaluated effects of multiple vaccines given to U.K. military personnel in the Gulf War, combined with
pyridostigmine bromide (PB), in several animal models. A number of abnormalities resulting from these
exposures were identified, which differed according to the study design and animal model used.
Relatively high-dose combinations of anthrax and pertussis vaccines produced observable illness and
weight loss in mice, with milder effects associated with more dilute vaccines. Toxicity effects in the
mouse model were attributed mainly to the pertussis vaccine.1285 A separate study found that PB, given at
levels comparable to those used in the Gulf War, had no effect on humoral immunity in mice.535 A
second series of experiments evaluated effects of 10 vaccines, given at various doses, alone and with PB,
in a guinea pig model. After 72 days, all animals appeared generally healthy. The only observable effect
was slight weight loss in the animals who received the highest-dose vaccine regimen.
The most comprehensive series of studies evaluated diverse health parameters in the marmoset, a small
primate, following receipt of vaccines and/or PB. Evaluations included effects on general health,
cognitive function, muscle function, sleep patterns, electroencephalograms (EEGs), immune function, and
adrenal function. Animals received one-fifth the human dose of all 10 vaccines, along with boosters, over
a 51 day period, and were infused for 28 days with PB at the dose required to reduce serum cholinesterase
levels by 30 percent. Outcomes were monitored over a 21 month period. The marmosets exhibited no
obvious behavioral or health changes over that time, and no differences in weight or muscle function.
Animals that received PB and/or vaccines, however, had significantly higher error rates on two of the
eight measures of cognitive function (new learning and compound reversal) that lessened over the period
of observation.1486 Animals treated with PB exhibited significantly reduced EEG alpha wave activity
early in the study, and reduced beta 2 waves at various times over the observation period. Pyridostigmine
bromide was also associated with reduced levels of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and fewer REM
periods. In contrast, animals who received multiple vaccines, had fewer waking periods early in the

Vaccines and Gulf War Illness  121

observation period, with improved sleep efficiency and more REM periods.1789 Urinary cortisol levels did
not vary by treatment group and there were no indicators of compromised immunity following treatment
with multiple vaccines and/or PB.632
Overall, the U.K. studies found no interactive or synergistic effects between PB and receipt of multiple
vaccines on any of the parameters studied. Individually, receipt of multiple vaccines, as well as PB,
produced a limited number of significant neurobehavioral effects. Both also produced significant, but
different, effects on sleep patterns. But neither PB nor multiple vaccines had detectable effects on muscle
function, peripheral immune response, or cortisol levels.
Results from the marmoset studies have parallel observations in Gulf War veterans—both in what was
found and in what was not found. A large British epidemiologic study reported no significant interaction
between PB and receipt of multiple vaccinations in relation to Gulf War illness.1698 Gulf War veterans
have also been reported to be similar to controls with respect to resting cortisol levels,502 and in vitro tests
of cellular and humoral immunity.422 Gulf War veterans commonly report sleep and cognitive
difficulties, and studies have identified several domains of measurable cognitive impairment in subsets of
symptomatic veterans.1709,1779
As will be described in a separate section, the Committee has reviewed evidence suggesting that immune
alterations related to veterans’ persistent symptoms might more likely be found in the brain than in the
peripheral circulation. A study conducted by investigators at Boston University School of Medicine
provides a preliminary indication that combined exposure to vaccines, stress, and PB may affect brain
processes associated with central immune activation and inflammation.917,1752 Immune stimulation by
KLH, used as a vaccine analog in the Boston study, significantly enhanced and prolonged the production
of stress-activated kinases regionally in the mouse brain. This effect was further enhanced and prolonged
by PB. Investigators suggested that vaccines and PB may act synergistically to dysregulate processes
normally associated with immune activation and inflammation in the brain, processes that mediate
neuronal damage following exposure to stress and toxic chemicals.
Studies Evaluating the Health of Gulf War Veterans in Relation to Vaccines
Association of Gulf War illness with individual vaccines. As detailed in Appendix A-12a, Gulf
War studies have frequently reported significant associations between Gulf War illness and receipt of
individual vaccines (e.g., BT, meningococcal, anthrax, plague, typhoid) using analyses that did not take
into account effects of other exposures in theater. This includes novel findings from a large study of
British Gulf War veterans that tetanus and cholera vaccines were not associated with Gulf War illness if
veterans received them before deployment, but were problematic for veterans who received them during
deployment.641 It is not possible to reliably interpret these findings, however, in light of confounding
potentially introduced by concurrent exposures, as previously described.
Only two Gulf War studies have assessed effects of individual vaccines while adjusting for the effects of
other exposures in theater. The large U.S. study of Navy Seabees queried veterans about their receipt of
five vaccines and immune globulin. All were significantly associated with Gulf War illness in unadjusted
analyses. After controlling for effects of other exposures, however, only meningococcal vaccine was
associated with Gulf War illness, presenting a significant, but only slightly elevated risk (OR = 1.3).527 In
the Fort Devens cohort, receipt of the anthrax vaccine was a significant risk factor for Gulf War illness
after adjusting for other exposures in theater. The increased risk for anthrax vaccine was also modest
(OR = 1.5) and the study did not assess contributions of other vaccines.1804
Health effects of anthrax vaccine in Gulf War veterans. Although it has often been suggested that
anthrax vaccine is a cause of Gulf War illness there is relatively little reliable evidence to support this

122  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

view. No efforts were made during the Gulf War to monitor short or long-term health problems following
receipt of AVA. Epidemiologic studies have generally not identified the anthrax vaccine to be a
prominent risk factor for Gulf War illness. As indicated, anthrax vaccine has been associated with
increased rates of symptoms, Gulf War illness, and poor health status in several studies, using analyses
that did not take into account effects of other exposures in theater.161,511,1371,1374,1698 The magnitude of risk
identified for the anthrax vaccine in these studies, however, was similar to that for most other vaccines,
and lower than for other types of exposures in theater. But more informative research on this issue is
extremely limited. Only two studies have evaluated the association of anthrax vaccine with Gulf War
illness, adjusting for effects of other exposures. Anthrax vaccine was identified as a significant, albeit
modest, risk factor in one of those studies.1804
There has been some concern that, since many Gulf War veterans might not have known if they received
the anthrax vaccine, inaccurate reporting could markedly affect studies evaluating effects of the anthrax
vaccine. Two studies have compared health outcomes in Gulf War veterans with self-reported versus
documented receipt of the vaccine. In a large study of U.K. Gulf War veterans, associations between
anthrax vaccine and health outcomes were similar in individuals who did and did not have their vaccine
records, as well as for anthrax vaccine received prior to and after deployment.641,1698 In all subgroups,
receipt of the anthrax vaccine was associated with a 1.3 to 1.5 times greater risk of Gulf War illness, with
no adjustments made for other types of exposures in theater.
The U.S. DOD has identified over 7,000 Gulf War veterans who are known to have received the anthrax
vaccine, based on available documents. Investigators from the Washington, DC, VAMC identified 352 of
those individuals among the 11,441 Gulf War veterans previously interviewed for the U.S. national
survey of Gulf War veterans.957 Gulf War veterans documented to have received the anthrax vaccine
reported a number of medical conditions and symptoms at higher rates than veterans who said they did
not receive the anthrax vaccine. These included significantly higher rates of dermatitis, gastritis, diarrhea,
joint pain, fatigue, mood changes, sleep abnormalities, and indigestion. A still greater number of
symptoms and health problems were significantly associated with self-reported, but undocumented,
receipt of the anthrax vaccine. These results indicate that, while the anthrax vaccine is potentially
associated with excess symptoms in Gulf War veterans, self-reported data introduced a bias that led to an
overestimate of the vaccine’s adverse effects.
Gulf War illness and receipt of multiple vaccines. An additional vaccine-related question of
importance is whether receipt of multiple vaccinations together, rather than any single vaccine alone,
contributed to the development of Gulf War illness. This issue has been of particular interest in the U.K
and has been investigated in studies of British and Australian Gulf War veterans, but not U.S. veterans.
In 1997, Professors Rook and Zumla of University College in London hypothesized that receipt of
multiple vaccines for the Gulf War could have precipitated an immunological shift that resulted in an
unbalanced production of Th2-type cytokines (associated with humoral immunity) relative to Th1-type
cytokines (associated with cell-mediated immunity).1306 They suggested that this shift may have resulted
from the many TH2-inducing vaccines given to Gulf War personnel, exacerbated by stress and perhaps
also by pesticide exposures. This idea, referred to as the Rook hypothesis, provided a testable theory for
explaining veterans’ diverse symptoms.
In 1999, investigators from King’s College in London reported that Gulf War veterans who received the
largest number of vaccines for the war had significantly worse health, on multiple measures, than veterans
who received fewer vaccines.1698 Additional analyses among the 923 study veterans with vaccination
records appeared, initially, to indicate that receipt of multiple vaccines before deployment was not
problematic. However, veterans who received five or more vaccines during deployment had a
significantly elevated rate of Gulf War illness (OR = 5).641 Commentators identified possible
explanations for this difference, pointing out, for example, that the types of vaccines received in theater

Vaccines and Gulf War Illness  123

differed from those administered prior to deployment.153,638,679 The study investigators suggested that the
difference was attributable to receiving multiple vaccines in conjunction with the stress of deployment.641
Further analyses, however, indicated that receiving multiple vaccines in theater was not more problematic
than multiple vaccines received before deployment. In response to suggestions from scientific colleagues,
the King’s College investigators revised their analytic approach and found no significant differences
between effects of multiple vaccines administered before and during deployment.638 Their final
conclusion, then, was that their data supported an overall association between multiple vaccines and ill
health in Gulf War veterans that was not specific to post-deployment vaccines.638 A study of Australian
Gulf War veterans also reported higher symptom rates among those who received the largest number of
immunizations for the Gulf War.789 Results of both the King’s College and Australian studies are difficult
to interpret, however, since neither study assessed effects of multiple vaccines, adjusted for other types of
exposures in theater.
A second British study provides a more informative look at this issue. Controlling for effects of multiple
exposures during deployment, investigators at the University of Manchester reported that the number of
inoculations received by British Gulf War veterans was significantly correlated with overall symptom
severity, and with symptoms of peripheral neuropathy.241 The Manchester study also indicated that there
were no differences between effects of vaccines received prior to and during deployment. No specific
information was provided, however, on types of vaccines or vaccine combinations linked to veterans’ ill
health.
There are two components of the original Rook hypothesis. The first is that receipt of multiple
vaccinations contributed to veterans’ persistent symptoms after the war. This has not been evaluated in
U.S. veterans, but is supported by one well-analyzed study of British veterans, with suggestive evidence
provided by two additional studies. The other component of the Rook hypothesis is that veterans’ ill
health resulted from a Th1-Th2 shift in cytokine production. Several studies have tested this directly by
assessing Th1 and Th2-related immune parameters in Gulf War veterans.1420,1835 As will be described in
more detail in a later section of the report, findings have not supported a bias towards production of Th2type cytokines in ill Gulf War veterans. It is not possible to know if such a shift occurred, temporarily, at
the time of the war, but a Th1-Th2 shift is not evident in veterans evaluated years after their return from
theater.1182
Other health effects of vaccines received during the Gulf War. Very few other Gulf Warrelated health outcomes have been assessed in relation to vaccines. Two studies have identified
significant associations between acute adverse reactions to vaccines received for deployment and poor
health outcomes after the war.1374,1698 Military hospitalization records indicate that there were 58
hospitalizations in theater for adverse reactions to vaccines. The largest number of cases attributed to one
vaccine was tetanus. One hospital admission, for seizures, was attributed to receipt of the anthrax
vaccine.1622 A report on U.S. military personnel who participated in DOD’s Gulf War registry program,
the CCEP, indicated that veterans who reported receiving BT, but not anthrax, had a significantly higher
rate of hospitalization after the war.1435 In studies of British Gulf War veterans, cancer rates were not
associated with receiving biological warfare vaccines (anthrax, pertussis, plague).943 Self-reported receipt
of the anthrax vaccine was associated with a small, nonsignificant, increase in overall mortality among
British veterans (mortality rate ratio = 1.2).944
Vaccines and the health of veterans who did not serve in the Gulf War. Epidemiologic
studies have generally assessed Gulf War-related health outcomes by comparing the health of Gulf War
veterans to personnel who served in the military during the war, but did not deploy to the Gulf War
theater. A potential problem of using nondeployed Gulf War era veterans as a comparison group is that
they may have received some or all of the vaccines given to Gulf War veterans. There are several reports

124  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

of military personnel with symptoms that resemble Gulf War illness who received vaccines in preparation
for service in the Gulf War, but did not actually deploy.69,918,1684
Very little research has assessed health problems in relation to vaccines received by Gulf War-era
veterans who did not serve in the Gulf War. The Kansas study asked nondeployed Gulf War-era veterans
if they had received any vaccines during the time of the Gulf War. Nondeployed veterans who reported
getting vaccines during that time had significantly higher rates of symptoms in several domains (chronic
somatic pain, neurological, and gastrointestinal problems) and a nearly four-fold higher rate of Gulf War
illness than nondeployed veterans who did not receive vaccines. Veterans who served in theater, by
comparison, had Gulf War illness symptoms at 11 times the rate of nondeployed veterans who did not
receive vaccines.1476 These findings provide support for the idea that military vaccines contributed to the
development of chronic symptoms in Gulf War era veterans. But the findings are preliminary and are
nonspecific, that is, no information is provided on the types or number of vaccines received by
nondeployed personnel.
Findings from the King’s College study of U.K. veterans may also have relevance to this issue. The study
compared the health of U.K. Gulf War veterans with Bosnia veterans, and asked both groups about
vaccines they had received. Few Bosnia veterans reported receiving biological warfare vaccines: anthrax,
pertussis, or plague. The total number of vaccines received was significantly associated with
multisymptom illness in Gulf War veterans, but not in Bosnia veterans.1698 Information provided did not
allow for a clear interpretation of these findings, however. They could indicate that the multiple vaccine
effect observed in British Gulf War veterans is related to specific vaccines given to Gulf War, but not
Bosnia, personnel. Alternatively, they could indicate that the multiple vaccine effect resulted from
confounding by other risk factors associated with Gulf War service. For example, the large Manchester
study of British Gulf War veterans found that the number of vaccines received by Gulf War veterans was
significantly correlated with other exposures in theater, such as the number of days PB was used.241
Accuracy of self-reported vaccine data. Most Gulf War studies have assessed veterans’ health in
relation to vaccines based on veterans’ own reports of immunizations they received for the war. Selfreported information on the number and types of vaccines received for Gulf War deployment is
potentially more problematic than for some other self-reported exposures. In addition to usual problems
related to accurate recall, veterans might not have known what vaccines they received at the time they
received them, as has been reported for anthrax and BT vaccines. Several studies have provided useful
insights related to the accuracy of vaccine reporting by veterans. Department of Veterans Affairs
investigators were able to evaluate the accuracy of veterans’ self-reported receipt of the anthrax vaccine
in 352 veterans interviewed for the U.S. national Gulf War survey. When questioned, three-fourths of the
352 veterans with DOD-documented receipt of the anthrax vaccine reported that they had, in fact,
received it. Only 10 percent reported they did not receive the anthrax vaccine and 16 percent didn’t
know.957
Two studies of U.K. Gulf War veterans found that veterans who used their shot records in reporting
immunizations tended to report more vaccines than veterans who did not have shot records.241,1698 But
misreporting and underreporting of vaccines appears to have had little effect on health findings related to
vaccines. Both large national studies of British Gulf War veterans found that associations between
vaccines and health outcomes were similar in veterans who did have vaccine records compared to
veterans who did not have their records.241,1698
Summary. Vaccines and Gulf War illness. Gulf War veterans received multiple immunizations for
deployment. These included the anthrax vaccine, which was given to a large number of military
personnel for the first time during the Gulf War. Diverse issues have been raised in relation to the anthrax
vaccine’s potential for causing adverse health effects. Due to changes in production methods and quality
control measures between 1990 and 2001, it is not known if the safety profile of the anthrax vaccine in

Vaccines and Gulf War Illness  125

current use is the same as that of the vaccine given to Gulf War personnel. Recent studies have indicated
that the current anthrax vaccine is associated with high rates of acute adverse reactions, particularly in
women. No information is available on rates of persistent symptoms or multisymptom illness following
receipt of the anthrax vaccine. Studies have not identified excess hospitalizations or outpatient visits for
diagnosed diseases in the weeks and months following receipt of the vaccine. Limitations in the types of
information provided by these studies, however, indicate a continued need for long-term follow up, to
determine whether excess rates of diagnosed or undiagnosed conditions occur in anthrax vaccine
recipients.
An excess of circulating antibodies to the natural substance squalene was reported in symptomatic Gulf
War veterans in 2000, and investigators suggested this could have been caused by an unapproved vaccine
adjuvant in the anthrax vaccine. Testing of potentially suspect vaccine lots by two laboratories identified
only trace amounts of squalene, far below levels usually used for vaccine adjuvants. The observed
association between Gulf War illness and elevated levels of squalene antibodies was not contingent on
anthrax vaccine being the source of this abnormality, however, and has not yet been independently
evaluated.
Gulf War epidemiologic studies have not identified any individual vaccine, including the anthrax vaccine,
to be a prominent risk factor for Gulf War illness. Several studies have provided indications that
personnel who received a larger number of vaccines for deployment have had higher rates of persistent
symptoms since the war. Few Gulf War studies have adequately analyzed data collected in relation to
vaccines received for deployment, however, to determine whether individual vaccines or combinations of
vaccines are independent risk factors for persistent health problems in Gulf War veterans.

126  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Recommendations
Diverse concerns have been raised in relation to vaccines received for the Gulf War, but relatively little
reliable information has implicated individual vaccines as prominent risk factors for Gulf War illness.
Several issues related to vaccines received by Gulf War veterans have not been adequately addressed by
existing research. These include the need for more thorough evaluation of vaccines as risk factors for
chronic health problems in epidemiologic studies, a definitive study to conclusively evaluate the
previously-observed association between squalene antibodies and Gulf War illness, and the need for
longer-term evaluation of symptoms and diagnosed diseases following receipt of the anthrax vaccine.
The Committee therefore recommends the following research:
 In previously-conducted and future epidemiologic studies of Gulf War veterans, analyze
associations between Gulf War illness and individual vaccines, combinations of vaccines, and total
number of vaccines received using methods that control for potential confounding by other Gulf
War-related exposures.
 Commission a case-control study to provide clear answers concerning possible associations
between Gulf War illness and squalene antibodies. The study should, at minimum, analyze blinded
samples from well-characterized symptomatic and healthy Gulf War veterans for the presence of
squalene antibodies using each of the assays developed for this purpose. It should also assess
whether there is an identifiable link between levels of squalene antibodies in ill Gulf War veterans
and receipt of the anthrax vaccine or vaccines more generally. The project should be organized and
overseen by qualified investigators not affiliated with the federal government or civilian scientists
whose initial work raised the squalene issue in relation to Gulf War illness.
 Evaluate the association of anthrax vaccine adsorbed (AVA) with chronic symptoms, Gulf War
illness, and diagnosed diseases in personnel known to have received the anthrax vaccine during the
Gulf War. These health outcomes should also be assessed at least five years after vaccination in
deployment and era subgroups of personnel in the Millenium Cohort study as well as other groups
vaccinated in association with the military’s anthrax vaccine immunization program and federal
anthrax vaccine trials.

Vaccines and Gulf War Illness  127

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine Bromide,
Pesticides, and Nerve Agents
Vesser [Acting Special Assistant to the Secretary of Defense for Gulf War illnesses LTG Dale
Vesser] remarked that although Saddam Hussein didn’t use nuclear, biological, or chemical
agents against coalition forces during the war, ‘it never dawned on us … that we may have
done it to ourselves.’
… ‘We know that at least 40,000 American troops may have been overexposed to
pesticides,’ Vesser said, adding that more than 250,000 American troops took the small, white
pyridostigmine bromide pills. …. Both of these substances may cause symptoms that are
consistent with the symptoms that some Gulf War veterans have.’
--Armed Forces Press Service, 2001491

Many classes of chemicals are neurotoxicants, that is, exposure to these compounds can have adverse
biological and physical effects on the nervous system. Three types of neurotoxicant exposures
encountered by Gulf War military personnel during deployment are chemically related. They include
chemical nerve agents, many of the pesticides used during the Gulf War, and pyridostigmine bromide
(PB), the drug given to troops as a protective measure in the event of nerve gas attack. In its 2004 report,
the Committee provided an overview of information concerning veterans’ exposures to these toxicants,
what was known about their health effects, and what had been learned from studies of Gulf War veterans.
The report concluded that available evidence supported a probable link between Gulf War illness and
exposure to these compounds.
Chemical nerve agents, PB, and many of the pesticides to which Gulf War veterans were exposed belong
to a class of chemicals known as acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors. They share a common toxic
mechanism of action, that is, they inactivate the enzyme AChE, which is essential for breaking down the
nerve signaling chemical (or neurotransmitter) acetylcholine. Inhibition of AChE leads to the buildup of
acetylcholine in the brain and peripheral nerve endings, and over stimulation of cholinergic nerve
receptors. Acetylcholinesterase-inhibiting medications and pesticides can be used safely at recommended
levels. Adverse effects can occur with excessive exposure, and are also seen at lower doses in individuals
who are particularly sensitive to these compounds.
The acute symptoms of excess exposure to AChE inhibitors relate to the different types of cholinergic
receptors affected by acetylcholine buildup. Excess cholinergic stimulation of muscarinic receptors of the
parasympathetic autonomic nervous system results in increased salivation and respiratory secretions,
nausea, abdominal cramping, diarrhea, and excess sweating. Effects on autonomic nicotinic receptors
include increased heart rate and blood pressure. Excess stimulation of nicotinic receptors in skeletal
muscles leads to muscle twitching, cramps, weakness, tremors, and paralysis. Excess stimulation of
acetylcholine receptors in the brain produces fatigue, mental confusion, headache, poor concentration and
general weakness and, at higher exposures, convulsions and coma.387 At sufficient doses, exposure to
AChE inhibiting chemicals can result in respiratory arrest and death.
This section of the report provides information on what is known about Gulf War veterans’ exposure to
these chemicals, what is known about their health effects overall, and what has been learned about their
effects from studies of Gulf War veterans. It also includes information on additional pesticides of
concern that are not AChE inhibitors and information from research on effects of exposure to
combinations of PB, pesticides, and nerve agents.

128  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Exposure to Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants During Gulf War Deployment
My unit arrived in the Gulf the day before the air war started. We first spent about a month in
Dhahran in Saudi Arabia. Our chemical alarms went off several times during that month, and
we had to go to MOPP-level four, which meant we had to put on chemical suits, masks,
gloves, and boots. While we were still in Dhahran, we started taking pyridostigmine bromide
pills, which were supposed to protect us against exposures to nerve gas. About three days
after I started taking the pills, my eyes were jittery, my vision was jumping, and I was seeing
double, and I was nauseated. By the fourth day, I was vomiting a little blood, so I went to
sick-call. They told me to cut the dose in half and said there was nothing to worry about. At
least I no longer vomited blood after I reduced the dosage. Many other people in the unit
reported having similar vision problems.
--SSgt PB, Gulf War veteran716

Military personnel serving in the 1990-1991 Gulf War were exposed to a variety of substances that have
the potential to adversely affect the central nervous system. These include multiple types of
anticholinesterase compounds—pyridostigmine bromide (PB) pills, pesticides, and for some veterans,
low-level exposure to chemical nerve agents. But not all personnel were exposed to the same compounds
at the same dosages and in the same combinations. Although records are not available that document
individual exposures to these compounds, government investigations have provided considerable
information on the extent and patterns of use of PB and pesticides, and have modeled nerve agent
exposures in relation to the largest verified nerve agent release incident.
Table 1. Veteran-Reported Exposures to Neurotoxicants During Gulf War Deployment
U.S. National
Survey751

U.S. Army
Veterans1804

U.S. Navy
Seabees524

U.K. National
Survey1698

Took pyridostigmine bromide pills

49 %

66 %

33 %

82 %

Used personal pesticides

48 %

46 %

35 %

69 %

Exposed to nerve gas/chemical agents

10 %

19 %

3%

9%

Population-based surveys of Gulf War veterans have also provided consistent information on veteranreported exposures during deployment. Table 1 summarizes responses to survey questions from studies
of Gulf War veterans in the U.S. and U.K. concerning their use of PB and pesticides, and whether they
thought they were exposed to chemical weapons. About half of all U.S. Gulf War veterans, and a higher
proportion of U.K. Gulf War veterans, report using PB and pesticides during deployment. Nearly two out
of three Gulf War veterans in the U.S. national survey reported that they had heard chemical alarms sound
or put on their MOPP gear (mission oriented protective posture, protective garments worn in a possible
chemical event) during deployment,751 but only 10 percent believed that they were exposed to nerve
agents or other chemical weapons in theater. Overall, Army veterans report greater exposure to PB,
pesticides, and nerve agents than Navy veterans. A large survey of British Gulf War veterans also found
that PB and pesticide use were reported by more U.K. Army personnel than those in the Royal Air Force
or Navy.241

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  129

Pyridostigmine bromide (PB) use in the Gulf War
Pyridostigmine bromide (PB) is a compound that reversibly binds to, and temporarily inactivates, AChE.
It is the active ingredient in the nerve agent pyridostigmine pretreatment (NAPP) pills that were
distributed to military personnel in the Gulf War as part of a three drug regimen to protect troops from
poisoning by nerve agents. The small white PB pills were intended for use before a nerve gas attack, to
establish blood levels adequate to temporarily bind about 30 percent of circulating AChE. If exposed to
nerve agents, soldiers were to inject themselves (or their buddy) with two antidotes, atropine and 2pralidoxime chloride (2-PAM), using prepackaged autoinjectors. These measures were intended to
protect cholinergic receptors from excess acetylcholine buildup, and “rescue” AChE in order to restabilize
cholinergic nerve transmission after the attack. Orders for initiating PB pretreatment were issued by unit
commanders. The NAPPs were contained in blister packs of 21 pills, 30 mg. each. Each pack provided
the number of pills needed for one week at the recommended dosage of one 30 mg. pill every eight
hours.951,1604
The 1990-1991 Gulf War was the first time the U.S. military had used PB on a widespread basis as a
nerve agent pretreatment. In 1990, PB was not licensed for this purpose by the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) but had been approved, since 1955, for treatment of myasthenia gravis. As a nerve
agent protective measure, PB was considered an investigational new drug (IND). At the request of DOD,
FDA granted a temporary waiver, in December 1990, that allowed use of PB in theater, in situations
involving combat or the threat of combat, without the usual IND requirement for informed consent.1275
The waiver was granted in light of the threat posed by Iraqi chemical weapons and the long history of PB
safety in the treatment of myasthenia gravis.781,951,1275,1604,1667 A number of problems occurred in
implementation of the use of PB under this agreement, however, which prominently included insufficient
information provided to troops in theater, and failure to keep adequate records of PB distribution and
use.462,1275,1604,1667
Pyridostigmine bromide has now been approved by FDA for use as a pretreatment measure against
exposure to the nerve agent soman.1664 Research in animal models indicates that PB pretreatment
enhances the effectiveness of the two antidotes that are used after exposure to soman, which permanently
inactivates AChE within minutes. Pyridostigmine is not useful as a pretreatment in the event of sarin
exposure, since sarin’s effects on AChE can be mitigated by the post exposure antidotes over a period of
several hours.504,830,951,1793,1810 There have been no reports indicating that soman was present in theater
during the 1990-1991 Gulf War, however. Available documents suggest that during the war, PB
pretreatment was directed in anticipation of nerve agent exposure more generally, rather than specifically
in relation to soman.781,1588,1604,1690
Epidemiologic studies indicate that about half of U.S. Gulf War veterans report using PB during
deployment,692,751 with greatest use among Army personnel.458,1804 The DOD Office of the Special
Assistant for Gulf War Illnesses (OSAGWI) commissioned the RAND National Defense Research
Institute to undertake an in-depth evaluation of pesticide and PB use patterns by ground troops during the
Gulf War.458 Investigators conducted detailed interviews of over 2,000 Gulf War veterans. Results
indicated that slightly more than half of Army and Navy/Marine Corps personnel serving on the ground
used PB, but only 23 percent of Air Force personnel used PB. Among individuals who used PB, the
number of pills taken was highly variable, with an average of 26 pills used in a given month. Most
individuals reported taking three or fewer pills per day for 30 days or less, but a small percentage reported
taking substantially more.458 Overall, troops living in the open desert took PB at twice the rate of troops
in tent cities, who in turn took PB at twice the rate of personnel living in buildings.458 Results from the
population-based Iowa study also suggested that active duty personnel took more pills, overall, than
reservists.692

130  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Pesticide use and exposures in the Gulf War
On a nightly basis, we would spray our uniforms with pesticides. There was a chemical spray
that they gave us to spray our uniforms. We had to hang them outside so that the excess
spray would dissipate in the air, I guess. We weren’t supposed to put them on immediately
after spraying them. The sand fleas were a problem. We used to put flea collars around the
legs of our cots or we would put flea powder on the floor around our cots to try to keep the
sand fleas away from us while we were sleeping. We slept with nets over us to keep the flies
off. The flies were ungodly.
--SSgt TS, Gulf War veteran716

The desert environment was home to large numbers of flying and biting insects, and other pests, which
posed a risk of disease to troops in theater. Control of disease-carrying pests is an important part of force
protection and readiness during military deployments. Troops serving in the region in earlier campaigns
had been affected by high rates of pest-borne diseases475,596,1632 and the U.S. military implemented
extensive measures to limit this problem in the Gulf War. Individuals were issued pesticide creams,
liquids, and sprays, to use on their skin, their uniforms, and their bedding, and pest strips, bait, and sprays
to use in their living quarters. Military preventive medicine specialists and field sanitation teams also
conducted extensive operations to control pests in areas where people lived, ate, and worked with
environmental fogging and surface spraying. These efforts were largely successful, as demonstrated by
the low rate of vector-transmitted infections identified during the war.664,1632
Similar to other exposures in the Gulf War, no records were kept in relation to pesticide use or exposure
for different areas, units, or individuals. After the war, when concerns were raised about the possible
contribution of pesticides to veterans’ unexplained illness, DOD undertook a number of assessments to
determine the types of pesticides to which Gulf War veterans were exposed, the amounts used in theater,
and patterns of pesticide use among individuals in the general military population and by pest control
personnel.
In its final Environmental Exposure Report on pesticide use in the Gulf War, issued in 2003, DOD
reported that U.S. personnel serving in the Gulf War used or had available for use, at least 64 pesticides
and related products, containing 37 active ingredients.1632 Of these, 15 were identified as “pesticides of
potential concern” based on what was known about the use and toxic effects of these compounds. The 15
pesticides are listed in Table 2, and include seven organophosphates, three carbamates, two pyrethroids,
one organochlorine, and two forms of the insect repellant DEET.
The most commonly used personal repellants were DEET, which was primarily to be used on the skin,
and permethrin, which was to be sprayed onto uniforms. Some personnel are known to have acquired
personal use pesticides in addition to those supplied by the military, including the commercial product
OFF, citronella products, and flea collars. Military environmental pesticide control measures included
surface spraying and environmental fogging using the organophosphates chlorpyrifos, diazinon, and
malathion, in varying concentrations, as well as the carbamates propoxur and bendiocarb. The
organochlorine lindane powder was used by military police and other personnel for delousing in the
processing of the more than 87,000 enemy prisoners captured in the war. Lindane was also issued to
troops for their personal use, primarily to Army personnel.1632 In addition, environmental pest control
was commonly provided by local pest control services in host nations, either under contract with the
military, or supplied by health departments of local Saudi Arabian municipalities. Relatively little
information is available concerning the types of compounds used or the frequency and patterns of
spraying done by local pesticide services.1632
Gulf War epidemiologic studies queried veterans about pesticide use in theater in diverse ways that
ranged from a simple question about whether or not the veteran had used “pesticides” during deployment,
to more detailed questions about specific types used and the extent of their use. The U.S. national survey

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  131

Table 2. Pesticides and Insect Repellants Identified as Pesticides of Potential Concern
by the Deployment Health Support Directorate

Compound

Use

Chemical Class

Purpose

Application

Pesticides and Repellants Used by the General Military Population
DEET, 33% cream, stick

Personal use Dialkylamide
repellant

Repel flies and
mosquitoes

By hand to skin

DEET, 75% liquid

Personal use Dialkylamide
repellant

Repel flies and
mosquitoes

By hand to skin, uniform,
netting

Permethrin, 0.5% spray

Personal use Pyrethroid
repellant

Repel flies and
mosquitoes

Sprayed on uniforms

d-Phenothrin, 0.2%
aerosol

Area use
repellant

Pyrethroid

Knock down, kill flies
and mosquitoes

Sprayed in tents, other
enclosed areas

Methomyl 1% crystals

Fly bait

Carbamate

Attract and kill flies

Placed in pans outside
latrines, tents

Azamethiphos, 1%
crystals

Fly bait

Organophosphate

Attract and kill flies

Placed in pans outside
latrines, tents

Dichlorvos, 20%
pest strip

Pest strip

Organophosphate

Attract and kill
mosquitoes

Hung in tents, working
areas, dumpsters

Pesticides Used by Pesticide Applicators
Chlorpyrifos, 45% liquid

Sprayed
liquid

Organophosphate

Kill flies, mosquitoes,
flying insects

Sprayed in corners,
cracks, crevices

Diazinon, 48% liquid

Sprayed
liquid

Organophosphate

Kill flies, mosquitoes,
flying insects

Sprayed in corners,
cracks, crevices

Malathion, 57% liquid

Sprayed
liquid

Organophosphate

Kill flies, mosquitoes,
flying insects

Sprayed in corners,
cracks, crevices

Propoxur, 14.7% liquid

Sprayed
liquid

Carbamate

Kill flies, mosquitoes,
flying insects

Sprayed in corners,
cracks, crevices

Bendiocarb, 19% liquid

Sprayed
powder

Carbamate

Kill flies, mosquitoes,
flying insects

Sprayed in corners,
cracks, crevices

Chlorpyrifos, 19% liquid

Fog

Organophosphate

Kill flies, mosquitoes

Large area fogging

Malathion, 91% liquid

Fog

Organophosphate

Kill flies, mosquitoes

Large area fogging

Delouser

Organochlorine

Kill lice, other insects

Dusted on prisoners,
also for personal use

Delousing Pesticide
Lindane, 1% powder

Source: DOD Environmental Exposure Report: Pesticides (2003)1632

indicated that about half of all Gulf War veterans reported using personal pesticides,751 with additional
studies suggesting that pesticide use was more common in Army than Navy personnel.524,1782 The Iowa
study also indicated that reservists reported pesticide use more commonly (63%) than active duty
personnel (44%).692

132  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

The RAND investigation of pesticide use among ground troops during the Gulf War reported
considerable diversity in patterns of pesticide use in theater. Survey respondents were often unable to
recall the specific chemicals used during deployment, but could identify the form of pesticides used (e.g.,
spray, liquid, powder) and how it was used (e.g., on clothing, skin, in tent), from which investigators
imputed the most likely compound.458 Personnel living in the desert used more pesticide sprays and
liquids than those who lived in buildings. Officers reported less use of pesticide lotions and flea collars
than enlisted personnel, and senior enlisted personnel reported greatest use of pesticide sprays and
powders.
Overall, 62 percent of ground troops interviewed reported some form of pesticide use. Forty-four percent
used pesticide sprays, a median of 30 times per month, and 26 percent used pesticide lotions a median of
20 times per month. Investigators estimated that the most commonly used compound was DEET, used by
half of all personnel, a median of 30 times per month. Permethrin was used by fewer personnel458,1632 but
was used an average of almost 30 times per month. This raises concerns, since the permethrin label
indicated that uniforms were to be sprayed only once every six weeks, or after six launderings. In
contrast, DOD reports indicate that guidance issued to some Army personnel directed them to “apply a
light coat of permethrin every four or five days.”1632
The RAND investigation indicates that overuse of pesticides was most apparent for permethrin, dphenothrin, lindane, and flea collars, although fewer individuals used these than the more commonly used
DEET. No-pest strips were also frequently used in greater density than recommended, particularly in
eating areas and latrines. Some pesticide overuse was extreme. About 13 percent of veterans reported
using pesticide sprays more than 50 times per month, and about five percent reported using pesticide
liquids or lotions more than 100 times in a given month, or more than three times per day.458
It also seems reasonable that people in environments with large numbers of insects, such as
in the Persian Gulf, would be tempted to use whatever means was available to remove the
pests, including using products in ways that were not recommended.
--RAND National Defense Research Institute, Pesticide Use During the Gulf War458

RAND investigators reported that personnel who reported frequent use of one type of personal pesticide
were also more likely to report frequent use of multiple pesticides, suggesting exposure to a “cocktail of
pesticides.” 458 Use of personal pesticides was also significantly correlated with the number of PB pills
taken in a given month. Over one in four veterans serving on the ground reported they had applied
pesticides from 51 to over 120 times in a given month, and had also used an average of 15-19 PB pills in
the same month.458 By comparison, ground troops who reported no use of pesticides took, on average,
only six PB pills in a given month.
The DOD final environmental exposure report on pesticides in the Gulf War included a health risk
assessment that relied on information from the RAND survey, as well as interviews conducted with
preventive medicine personnel knowledgeable about field pesticide use. The report concluded that “at
least 41,000 Gulf War service members may have been overexposed to pesticides” and that
“overexposure to pesticides, particularly organophosphates and carbamates, may have contributed to the
unexplained illnesses reported by some Gulf War veterans.” The figure of 41,000 was provided as a
minimum figure, and did not consider effects of “overexposure” potentially resulting from combinations
of organophosphate and carbamate pesticides with concurrent exposures to DEET, permethrin, PB, or
low-level nerve agents or pesticide exposures resulting from pest control services provide by host
nations.1632

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  133

Although comprehensive information on pesticide use in current deployments to Iraq and Afghanistan has
not yet been reported, it appears that improved pesticide use and oversight have been among the
important lessons learned from the 1991 Gulf War.36 In 1993, the Deputy Undersecretary of Defense
issued three pest management “Measures of Merit” that established objectives for improved pest
management planning, a 50 percent reduction in the amount of pesticides used on military installations,
and improved training and certification of pesticide applicators.442 The military has now established
improved standards and practices that include expanded use of trained preventive medicine field teams
that monitor environmental hazards, training and printed materials for military personnel on the need for
proper use of pesticides and insect repellants, as well as some changes in the specific pesticide products
used.1074,1583,1632
There are multiple indications that pesticide usage in Operation Iraqi Freedom has differed from that in
the 1990-1991 Gulf War. DEET formulations currently provided by the military contain 20-33 percent
DEET; the 75 percent DEET liquid issued during the Gulf War is no longer in use.62 Lindane, the
organochlorine issued for delousing prisoners and for personal use during the Gulf War is no longer used
for either purpose by the military.63 In addition, troops in current deployments have had access to
uniforms that were pretreated with permethrin, and permethrin treatment kits that reduce risks associated
with uniform spraying, and sometimes over spraying, as occurred in the Gulf War.62,1771
Reports indicate that Iraq War troops were more educated about pesticides,36 but sometimes did not have
sufficient access to repellants, at least in the first years of the war.399,1771 A survey of 870 service
members at camps in Kuwait in 2004 indicated that most personnel had received medical briefings on
why and how insect repellants were to be properly used. However, only 36 percent had been issued any
DEET product and 48 percent had received permethrin products.1771 A substantially larger number of
cutaneous leishmaniasis cases have occurred among Iraq War troops, compared to the 1991 Gulf War,399
which a National Defense University report suggests may be related to reduced used of pesticides.1537
Therefore it appears that pesticide usage by troops in Operation Iraqi Freedom is decreased, or from
another perspective, improved and more judicious, compared to pesticide usage in the 1991 Gulf War.
This can be attributed to a number of factors, including improved pest management policies, improved
education of pesticide applicators and the general military population, expanded placement of preventive
medicine field sanitation teams, differences in living conditions, discontinued use of lindane and 75
percent DEET, and, in some cases, inadequate supplies of repellant products.
Exposure to chemical weapons in the Gulf War
In late January 1991, while assigned to an area between Rafha and Naryian about six miles
south of the Iraqi border, BM recorded in his journal and on videotape that chemical ‘false
alarms’ were going off almost every day. At first, according to BM, the alarms were explained
as being caused by vapors coming off the sand. Later, since the alarms kept going off and
troops no longer believed they were being caused by vapors, BM said he was informed by
both his battalion commander and the battalion NBC NCO that the alarms were sounding
because of ‘minute’ quantities of nerve agent in the air, released by the coalition bombing of
Iraqi chemical weapons facilities. The troops were assured that there was no danger.
--1994 Senate Committee report on Gulf War veteran, 18th Airborne Corps1688

Among the many challenging issues related to understanding levels and effects of hazardous exposures in
the Gulf War, those surrounding troop exposures to chemical weapons in theater are the most complex
and controversial. Multiple accounts of chemical alerts during the war, positive readings on chemical
detection tests, and incidents involving unusual vapors and unexplained symptoms were reported in the

134  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

media and documented in Congressional reports. Seventeen years after the war, after numerous
government and special committee investigations, research studies, and reports, significant questions
remain about the extent to which military personnel were exposed to low levels of chemical warfare
agents during the Gulf War.
For the first five years after Desert Storm, DOD maintained that no troops had been exposed to chemical
agents. The Iraqis were known to have chemical weapons and to have used them against Iranians and
their own citizens in the 1980s. The Department of Defense consistently affirmed, however, that Iraq had
not used chemical weapons offensively in the Gulf War and that none had been positioned in areas of Iraq
that were penetrated by Coalition forces. In preparing for the Gulf War air offensive, U.S. military
planners had identified multiple Iraqi targets where chemical weapons were believed to be manufactured
or stored.1748 Most of these chemical targets had been successfully destroyed during the air campaign.320
But DOD indicated that any chemical agents released with the bombing of Iraqi targets had occurred a
great distance from Coalition troop locations, too far away to have affected U.S. or allied personnel.
In June of 1996, DOD announced that U.S. troops had potentially been exposed to low levels of nerve
agents after the cease fire in March of 1991, when Army personnel detonated large caches of munitions
stored at a massive compound near Khamisiyah, in southeastern Iraq. This announcement proved to be a
turning point in the federal response to Gulf War health issues. It triggered an expanded effort to analyze
and address Gulf War health issues overall, stimulated multiple investigations into chemical weapons
exposures in theater, and led to a military research program aimed at better understanding effects of lowdose exposure to chemical warfare agents.1102
Chemical warfare agent exposure and detection in the Gulf War theater. Understanding the
likely extent of chemical agent exposures in the Gulf War has been complicated by a number of factors.
These include long-time official denials that chemical releases and exposures had occurred in theater, the
postwar disappearance of the U.S. Central Command’s records of reported chemical events during the
Gulf War, the limited capabilities of chemical monitoring equipment in theater, controversy surrounding
government conclusions about chemical releases at Khamisiyah and other locations, and the limited
degree to which military personnel could have known if they had been exposed to low levels of chemical
agents.
There are multiple scenarios in which chemical agent exposures could potentially have occurred. These
include Iraqi offensive use of chemical weapons, downwind drift of chemical agents released by Coalition
aerial bombing of Iraqi targets, local exposure and downwind drift following ground destruction of
chemical munitions, and exposure of individuals who entered bunkers or other areas contaminated by
chemical weapons. The Department of Defense has maintained that there was no offensive use of
chemical weapons in theater, and has only verified that troops were exposed to nerve agents in one case,
as a result of the ground destruction of chemical weapons at Khamisiyah. Multiple reports of chemical
detections and other incidents that potentially involved chemical exposures have long fueled speculation,
however, that additional exposures may have occurred, exposures that were either not identified or not
verified by DOD.388,1560,1683,1685,1688
In the years since the war, an extensive number of reports from DOD, the U.S. Central Intelligence
Agency (CIA), the United Nations, and other sources have provided information on the types and
amounts of chemical agents stored, deployed, and destroyed in different locations in the Gulf War theater.
Previous advisory panels, government agencies, and Congressional committees have been tasked with
reviewing available information on these issues. Their reports have identified a variety of different issues
and produced different, sometimes contradictory, findings.1231,1232,1595,1683,1688,1690 Detailed analysis of the
many intelligence reports, modeling protocols, incident reports, and investigations related to possible
chemical releases and exposures in theater was beyond the scope of the present report. Instead, the

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  135

Committee broadly reviewed information provided by government investigations and issues raised by
earlier panels to determine what has been learned about chemical agent exposures during the Gulf War.
It is important to note that there have been no reports during or after the war of high-level chemical
exposure incidents in which large numbers of personnel experienced clear signs and symptoms of
chemical agent poisoning. Available information indicates that the major unanswered questions about
exposure to chemical weapons during the Gulf War relate to: (1) whether more limited or lower level
chemical agent exposures occurred in theater that were undetected, unreported, or unverified by the
government, and (2) if modeled plume estimates for the Khamisiyah demolitions usefully reflect chemical
exposures that resulted from releases at that site.
Limitations and problems in detecting chemical warfare agents. At the most fundamental
level, identifying chemical agent exposures during the Gulf War depended on reliable detection of those
agents. Concerns about the inability of chemical monitoring systems used in the Gulf War to detect lower
levels of chemical agents in the field were raised in 1994 by the Senate Banking Committee, and again in
1996 and 1997 by the Presidential Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses.1227,1231,1690
During the Gulf War, the U.S. military used a multilevel system for detecting and verifying chemical
agents. With an initial detection, an alarm alerted personnel to the possible presence of a chemical agent
and troops donned protective gear until results from a second type of test either verified a positive
detection or permitted an “all clear” notification. The primary early warning system for airborne
chemical agents was the M8A1 chemical alarm. These alarms could be placed upwind from the unit’s
position to monitor for VX and G series nerve agents, including sarin. The M8A1 could only detect nerve
agents at levels that can also cause symptoms, and could not detect blister agents such as mustard gas at
any level.1231,1595,1605,1690 Handheld chemical agent monitors (CAMs) could detect airborne vapors of both
nerve and blister agents but were not primarily used as an open air warning device. They were more
commonly used to determine if personnel or surfaces had been contaminated, by assessing and roughly
quantifying vapors emanating from liquid agent.961,1595 Liquid chemical agent hazards could also be
detected by M8 and M9 papers, issued to individual service members, and by a specialized kit (M272)
used by NBC (nuclear, biological, chemical) personnel to identify chemical agents in water.1595
The most widely used system for verifying airborne chemical agents was the M256A1 Chemical Agent
Detector Kit. Testing was conducted by trained NBC personnel and involved a sequence of steps that
required 20-25 minutes to complete.1595,1613 Although not useful as an early warning monitor, the
M256A1 kits were more sensitive to nerve agents than the alarms, and less prone to false positives.
The U.S. military also fielded 60 armored FOX NBC Reconnaissance vehicles, provided by Germany
during Operation Desert Shield.1606 The Fox vehicles were considered the most technologically advanced
chemical equipment used by the U.S. in the Gulf War. This mobile unit could conduct chemical and
radiation reconnaissance in different settings, with capabilities to sample for, detect, and verify chemical
agents. Fox vehicles were equipped with the M43A1 chemical agent detector and an MM-1 mobile mass
spectrometer. They were designed primarily to identify ground contaminated areas and were most
sensitive and specific for detecting liquid chemical agents. The Fox was not considered a suitable first
warning device when used in air sampling mode, since a relatively high concentration of nerve or blister
agent vapor was required for detection.1231,1595,1606,1628,1690 The MM-1 spectrometer provided detailed
chemical agent verification capability, but identified only the compound present at the highest
concentration.1228,1628 If, for example, nerve agent was present, but at a lower concentration than a
compound in oil fire smoke, only the oil fire compound would be identified.
The multilevel chemical agent detection system used by the military during the Gulf War was intended to
detect chemical agents at levels that could cause acute harm to troops in the field, and provide warning to
allow them to take protective action. This was consistent with the understanding at the time that subacute

136  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Table 3. Chemical Agent Vapor Detection Capabilities of Equipment Used in the Gulf War,
and Current Chemical Weapons Air Exposure Guidelines and Standards

Sarin

Mustard

Vapor Detection Capabilities of Chemical Detection Equipment Used by the U.S. Military in the Gulf War
0.1 – 0.2 mg/m3

no capability

Portable chemical agent monitors

< 0.1 mg/m3

< 0.1 mg/m3

M256A1 detector kits

0.005 mg/m3

2 mg/m3

0.2 mg/m3

no capability

M8A1 chemical alarms

Fox vehicle M43A1 alarm
Fox vehicle MM-1 mass spectrometer monitor

3

62 – 100 mg/m

Chemical Weapons Air Standards and Guidelines Currently Used by the U.S. Military
Air exposure limits:
Immediate danger to life and health (1 time exposure)
Short term exposure limit (occasional 15 minute exposure)
Acute exposure guideline levels (1 time exposure)
Level 1 (potential for noticeable effects, minor discomfort)
- 10 minutes
- 1 hour
Level 2 (more obvious effects, potential impact on function)
- 10 minutes
- 1 hour
Level 3 (potentially life threatening)
- 10 minutes
- 1 hour

0.1 mg/m3
0.0001 mg/m3

0.7 mg/m3
0.003 mg/m3

0.0069 mg/m3
0.0028 mg/m3

0.400 mg/m3
0.067 mg/m3

0.087 mg/m3
0.035 mg/m3

0.600 mg/m3
0.100 mg/m3

0.38 mg/m3
0.13 mg/m3

3.900 mg/m3
2.100 mg/m3

Chemical Agent Detection Capabilities Sources: Defense Science Board Task Force on Persian Gulf War Health Effects,1597
National Research Council,1007 U.S. Department of Defense1605,1606,1613
Air Standards and Guidelines Source: U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine1581,1582

exposure to chemical agents did not pose a serious health threat. In recent years, growing concern about
possible adverse effects of lower level exposures have prompted federal agencies, including DOD, to
revise chemical agent exposure standards and adopt guidelines that are more conservative than those in
place during the Gulf War, that is, standards that consider lower exposure levels to be potentially
problematic.1574,1755 The Department of Defense has also replaced the M8A1 alarms with next generation
alarms that have expanded capabilities and are less prone to false alarm.1605
Information on detection capabilities of equipment used by the U.S. in the Gulf War for airborne sarin
and mustard is provided in Table 3. The table also provides current toxicity standards and guidelines used
by the military for exposure to these agents. Because the toxicity of chemical agents varies with the
concentration and duration of exposure,86 limits are provided for immediate and short term exposures, and
guidelines identify levels at which mild, more serious, and life threatening health effects may acutely
occur.1581,1582 As shown, the M8A1 alarms could have detected sarin at levels that pose an immediate
danger to life and health with a one time exposure. The alarms would not have detected sarin present at
levels capable of producing limited symptoms after only 10 minutes exposure, identified as a Level 1
exposure in the table. The M8A1 alarms also might not have detected a Level 2 exposure, associated with

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  137

more significant symptoms and signs with 10 minutes exposure. The M256A1 detection kits could
potentially have identified chemical agents at considerably lower levels, but would not likely have been
used in the absence of an initial warning alarm.
Overall, monitoring capabilities for chemical agent vapors were insufficient to detect levels that could
cause limited symptoms with relatively brief exposures, or more pronounced problems with sustained
exposures. And, as previously indicated, the M8A1/M43A1 alarm systems would not have detected
nerve agents at levels too low to cause any symptoms, or blister agents at any level.
From the Saudi berm north, the air was heavy with oil smoke. This smoke deposited an oily
residue on the alarms’ paddles which tripped the alarms. On the average, the alarms
activated every 20 to 30 minutes. … The M8A1s were useless in the smoky, dusty desert
environment.
--March 1991 memo, 2nd Light Armored Infantry Battalion1381

Another major concern related to chemical detections were problems caused by the repeated sounding of
alarms deemed to be false. Department of Defense reports indicate that M8A1 alarms were widely used in
theater, and that false alarms were triggered by factors such as fuel vapors and engine exhaust, oily
smoke, blowing sand, and low batteries on the units.961,1605 Surveys of Gulf War veterans consistently
report that most ground troops heard chemical alarms one or more times during deployment, indicating
that a very large number of alarms sounded in theater. But overall, it is not known how many chemical
alarms sounded over the course of the war, in what areas they occurred, or how many were followed up
with additional testing. Repeated false alarms in some locations led some units to ignore or disable their
alarms.1228,1684 Such problems might have led some personnel to believe they were exposed to chemical
agents when they had not been, or others to believe they had not been exposed when they might have
been.
Chemical incidents during the war that were communicated to Central Command (CENTCOM) forward
headquarters in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, were recorded in logs maintained by NBC desk officers. In 1996,
DOD announced that the NBC logs on which chemical incidents had been recorded during Operations
Desert Shield and Desert Storm were missing. The Pentagon’s Office of the Inspector General (IG)
investigated the logs’ disappearance and issued its report in 1997. The IG report indicated that the NBC
logs had initially been generated in hard copy, entered into computer files, and backed up on portable
disks by the NBC desk in Riyadh.1602 After the war, hard copies, laptop computers, and disks containing
the logs were shipped to CENTCOM Headquarters in Tampa, Florida, and stored in safes. It was never
determined with certainty what happened to them, but the IG report found it likely that, contrary to DOD
policy, they had inadvertently been disposed of when the NBC office was relocated in 1994. Duplicate
disks had also been sent to Aberdeen Proving Ground after the war, but were also not locatable.
The loss of the NBC logs made it impossible to ascertain what chemical incidents had been reported to
CENTCOM and what determinations had been made. It also raised a great deal of public skepticism
concerning the reliability of DOD reporting on chemical exposures in theater. The IG report indicated
that copies of 32 of the approximately 150 pages of the missing NBC logs had been provided to assist the
Defense Science Board Task Force on Persian Gulf War Health Effects in 1993, whose 1994 report
contained information compiled from those pages. The graph in Figure 1 is taken from the 1994 report,
and depicts an unspecified group of chemical reports logged by CENTCOM between January 1 and
March 7, 1991. The largest number were recorded in the early days after the air war began, and again in
the days surrounding the ground war.

138  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Figure 1. Logged Chemical or Biological Reports Processed:
Compiled from CENTCOM Logs

Source: Defense Science Board Task Force on Persian Gulf War Health Effects 1595

As previously described, verification of a chemical agent detection required that an initial detection be
retested and confirmed by a second type of test that used different technology. The Presidential Advisory
Committee pointed out that verification of chemical detections using the Fox vehicle was often not
possible on the battlefield, as described below:
Doctrine required that following an initial alarm for CW [chemical warfare] agent(s), the Fox
vehicle’s full spectrum capability should be engaged. To complete the full spectrum analysis,
however, required that U.S. military personnel stop the Fox vehicle, return to the site where
the MM-1 alarmed, and then perform a 20-minute process. Fox vehicle personnel recognized
the danger that stopping in the midst of battle would pose to themselves and their fellow
service members, and so they did not. As a consequence, full spectrum analyses rarely were
performed during the Gulf War. Yet doctrine is clear it is impossible to confirm a detection
without a full spectrum. Because doctrine did not accommodate the actual conditions of use,
a post-incident evaluation of an incident that lacks a full spectrum cannot be validated.
--Presidential Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses, 19971231

The Department of Defense has consistently maintained that no U.S. chemical agent detections during the
Gulf War were verified as positive. This is commonly interpreted to mean that all alarms that sounded in
theater were false alarms, and that troops were not exposed to chemical agents, except in relation to the
Khamisiyah demolitions. But there are limitations in what can and cannot be determined from chemical
alarm detections. It can only be said that DOD has not verified any U.S. chemical detections based on its
own criteria which, at a minimum, required evidence of positive detections using two types of tests.1230
As indicated, blister agents and lower level exposures to nerve agents would not have been detected by
M8A1 alarms or the M43A1 alarm used on Fox vehicles. And detections that did trigger alarms were not
always followed up with additional testing.
It is relevant to note that at least one chemical alarm sounded on March 4, 1991, during the first munitions
demolitions at Khamisiyah. Initial follow up tests with M256A1 kits were inconclusive or negative, and
repeat tests were negative, leading NBC personnel to conclude that the alarm had been false, and that no
chemical agents were present. Therefore, no additional actions were taken and no chemical incident
report was submitted up the chain of command.1638 Years later, DOD confirmed that there were multiple
definite releases at the site and that about 100,000 troops may have been exposed to low levels of nerve

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  139

agent as a result. But based on routine field criteria, even at close proximity to the chemical agent release,
the alarm was determined to be a false alarm, and the detection not credible.
Exposure to nerve agents in relation to the Khamisiyah demolitions. In early March of 1991,
just days after the U.S. declared a cease fire, U.S. soldiers began operations to destroy enemy munitions at
a large weapons compound near Khamisiyah, about 100 km. from the Kuwaiti border in southeastern
Iraq. The Khamisiyah Ammunition Supply Point was a massive Iraqi weapons storage area, covering
nearly 40 square km., which included approximately 100 ammunition storage bunkers, 88 ammunition
storage warehouses, and many additional buildings.1630 It is now known that chemical agents were
located at this site and were destroyed and scattered during the demolitions operations, potentially
exposing large numbers of U.S. personnel to low levels of sarin and cyclosarin. An enormous amount has
been written about these events, including details of the demolitions operations, dissemination of
intelligence on chemical agents to units responsible for destroying munitions, and efforts to determine
who may have been exposed to chemical agents, and at what levels.1590,1630
Although attention has focused on demolition events at Khamisiyah following the cease fire, there was
considerable activity at the site during the Coalition air and ground offensives. A 2002 DOD report
indicates that during the period of active hostilities, Coalition aircraft made 40 air strikes against
Khamisiyah on six different dates between January 19 and February 25, 1991. These attacks reportedly
destroyed 45 warehouses and at least four bunkers.1630 Units of the XVIII Airborne Corps had attacked
and occupied the sector of Iraq in which Khamisiyah was located during the ground war. On February
26, 1991, the XVIII Airborne Tactical Operations Center sent a message that they may have hit chemical
munitions near a site referred to as Objective Gold, a primary target of the ground offensive that was
located about five km. from Khamisiyah.1590,1630 No further investigations have been reported concerning
possible chemical releases during the air and ground wars either at Khamisiyah or at Objective Gold. The
24th Infantry Division is reported to have pushed through the Khamisiyah weapons site on February 26,
but not to have occupied the site at that time.
Before the ground war began in February, 1991, Army Central Command had directed the XVIII
Airborne and VII Corps to destroy all enemy munitions within their respective sectors, in an effort to
eliminate Iraq’s military capabilities.1630 After the ceasefire, units in the XVIII Airborne’s 82nd Airborne
Division, along with supporting units, conducted their initial reconnaissance in and around Khamisiyah.
Troops wore protective MOPP gear and had M8A1 alarms and M256A1 test kits when they entered the
bunkers to survey the site, and chemical officers later reported that no chemical weapons had been
detected. Army directives available to the XVIII Airborne at that time indicated that Iraqi chemical
weapons could be identified by certain characteristic markings. Later information that munitions carrying
chemical agents were not clearly or consistently marked was not provided until after the
demolitions.1590,1630
After their initial survey of the site, combat engineering units set charges in preparation for the initial
large-scale demolitions on March 4, 1991. All personnel and civilians were cleared from the area. The
troops conducting the demolitions moved back, at least three miles from the site, to observe the
explosions when the charges were detonated. Reports indicate that the massive explosions were visible
for miles around, with debris flying out to great distances, some dropping in areas where demolitions
personnel were observing the explosions. M8A1 alarms were operational during this time, and at least
one is reported to have sounded from an observation location, causing unit members to go into MOPP4.
Confirmation tests using M256 detection kits were negative, and the alarm or alarms were determined to
be false. Explosions continued for hours after the detonations.1630,1638
Additional large-scale demolitions were conducted on March 10, when bunkers, warehouses, and stacks
of crated rockets in an area known as “the Pit” were destroyed. On March 20, more than 400 earth berm

140  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

bunkers located at Khamisiyah Storage Depot South were destroyed. Units from VII Corps came into the
area on March 24, and continued demolitions on remaining bunkers at Khamisiyah through early April.
The United Nations Special Commission on Iraq (UNSCOM) was created in April 1991 to identify and
destroy Iraq’s remaining chemical and biological capabilities. On May 16, 1991, Iraq declared to
UNSCOM that chemical weapons had been present at Khamisiyah before and during the Gulf War.1630
UNSCOM inspectors visited the site in October, 1991, and confirmed that both nerve and blister agents
had been in the area. Government reports later blamed confusion over different names used for the site
by the intelligence community and the military—in reports and memos transmitted before, during, and
after the war—as the reason that it did not become clear until several years later that chemical weapons
had been present at Khamisiyah.1590,1630
It was not until June 21, 1996, that DOD publicly announced that U.S. forces had destroyed bunkers
containing chemical agents at Khamisiyah.1600 In the wake of the announcement, DOD and CIA initiated
activities to investigate events at the site, to characterize the release of chemical agents, and to evaluate its
possible association with the health problems affecting Gulf War veterans.1589 In October 1996, DOD
announced it would contact the 20,000 veterans in units who had been within 50 km. of Khamisiyah to
notify them of the nerve agent release. In November, 1996, Dr. Bernard Rostker was named to head the
newly established Office of the Special Assistant to the Deputy Secretary of Defense for Gulf War
Illnesses (OSAGWI).1630
In the months and years that followed, OSAGWI mounted extensive investigations of events and
exposures during the Gulf War. This included several detailed efforts to model chemical release and
exposure scenarios resulting from the Khamisiyah demolitions, in cooperation with CIA. Modeling
efforts were complex, and involved estimates of the number and types of rockets destroyed in different
areas of Khamisiyah, the amount of agent in each rocket, the degree of purity of the agents and ratio of
sarin to cyclosarin, demolition simulations conducted at Dugway Proving Ground, and determinations of
wind speed and direction at different times over multiple days.1630,1631 The modeling approaches used
were sophisticated, but necessarily involved major assumptions and uncertainties. Alongside these
efforts, DOD developed unit location databases to determine where each unit had been located in theater
for each day in question, to assist in identifying individuals in areas potentially affected by chemical
releases at Khamisiyah.
After initially determining that 20,000 veterans had been located within 50 km. of the Khamisiyah
demolitions, DOD and CIA announced, in July 1997, results of a modeling effort developed to more
accurately characterize troop exposures between March 10 and March 13, 1991. The models for the four
day period, derived from a composite of four modeling approaches, indicated that no troops had been in
areas where exposures would have been predicted to immediately produce noticeable symptoms. This
was consistent with earlier reports from medical officers who had not observed symptoms of chemical
agent exposure at the time of the demolitions.1638 However, lower-level exposures were possible for
98,910 soldiers who had been in the modeled “low level hazard area,” where exposures below those that
cause immediate symptoms may have occurred.1630
Results of a second detailed modeling effort were released in early 2000. Overall, the 2000 models
indicated that 101,752 troops were in locations within the “potential hazard” area. This included areas
where exposures were estimated to exceed the “general population limit” threshold for a sustained four
day exposure. Exposures within this hazard area would therefore have ranged from extremely low levels
with no noticeable effects to levels that could potentially cause observable symptoms. The specific
geographical area identified by the 2000 hazard area differed markedly from the 1997 hazard area. As a
result, nearly a third of the troops identified as potentially exposed by the 1997 models were no longer in
the hazard area identified by the 2000 models, and over 30,000 additional troops were newly identified as
potentially exposed to low level nerve agents.1630

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  141

Questions about Khamisiyah models and exposure estimates. Because of the many uncertainty
factors and assumptions used in generating both the 1997 and 2000 Khamisiyah models, it is not
surprising that both the methods used and the conclusions drawn from these efforts have been challenged.
In its 1998 report, the Senate Special Investigation Unit on Gulf War Illnesses (SIU) raised far-reaching
criticisms of the 1997 models. The committee favored an alternate approach, supported by an
independent consultant, that utilized weather data and plume diffusion modeling from the Air Force
Technical Assistance Center (AFTAC). Preliminary modeling conducted by AFTAC had described an
alternate plume that moved south and east after the detonations, extending further into Kuwait.1690
The U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO) also conducted an in-depth investigation of Khamisiyah
modeling efforts and provided its findings in a detailed report issued in June 2004.1683 The report sharply
criticized the DOD/CIA Khamisiyah models, and concluded that estimated troop exposure levels were
highly questionable because the models on which they were based were not reliable. Specific problems
were identified on many levels, beginning with the initial data on which the models were based—
information on agent quantity, purity, and concentration, and on weather and wind patterns. The report
further indicated that assumptions used to construct models were often inaccurate or contradictory and
that modeling procedures were not validated for estimating long-range environmental fallout. The GAO
report concluded that the actual extent of chemical agent exposures resulting from the Khamisiyah
demolitions could not be determined. Further, because the data required for accurate modeling were not
available, additional modeling efforts were not likely to be any more useful than DOD models had been.
It is likely that if fully developed and validated models and more realistic data for source term
were included in the modeling, particularly plume height and exposure duration, the exposure
footprints would be much larger and most likely to cover most of the areas where U.S. and
other coalition forces were deployed.
--U.S. General Accounting Office, 20031681

In addition, GAO cautioned that research findings based on the Khamisiyah models could not, with
confidence, be considered valid.1681 Use of the models to identify veterans who had been “exposed” or
“not exposed” to nerve agents was problematic for two reasons. The first related to inaccuracies specific
to the Khamisiyah models, spelled out in detail. The second related to the possibility that military
personnel had been exposed to chemical agents at other times and locations.1683 Both factors could
potentially contribute to extensive classification errors in determining which veterans had been exposed to
nerve agents. Due to the many unknown factors associated with chemical agent exposure in theater, GAO
recommended that no additional epidemiologic research be based on nerve agent exposures estimated by
the DOD Khamisiyah models.
The Department of Defense responded to issues raised by GAO, defending the modeling techniques
employed as state-of-the-art. The DOD response also pointed out a number of factual errors in GAO’s
assertions, and indicated that changes made in the 2000 models had addressed some of the concerns
raised.1683 Although DOD did not concur with GAO’s recommendation on epidemiologic research, it did
concur that no additional modeling efforts should be conducted.
The many detailed issues raised by GAO concerning the Khamisiyah models, at minimum, indicate the
need for caution in assuming that the models accurately represent nerve agent exposures resulting from
the demolitions. Additional issues related to Khamisiyah that were not raised by GAO or SIU include
questions about possible chemical releases at the site during the air and ground offensives. There is also
minimal support in DOD reports for their including only nerve agent releases from a single day, March
10, 1991, in the Khamisiyah models, although demolitions occurred there on multiple occasions over a
five week period. The GAO report also raises a second issue of importance, that is, the potential for Gulf
War personnel to have been exposed to chemical agents in other locations.1683

142  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

The possibility of other chemical agent exposures. There are numerous reports from
government and private sources, and personal stories from individual veterans, that describe incidents
suggesting possible chemical agent exposures during the war.388,521,579,961,1231,1558,1688 Many are anecdotal,
undocumented by any type of evidence. Others are associated with some level of evidence such as a
positive chemical detection, but government investigations have found the available evidence too limited
to verify the detection. Reports commonly indicate that troops believed that positive detections had been
the result of chemicals drifting south from where Coalition troops had bombed chemical facilities in Iraq.
Iraq’s chemical production and storage facilities had been high priority targets in the early days of the air
offensive.320,1284,1690
The measures we took to eliminate the enemy’s chemical and biological threat were both
active and passive. The active measures were the destruction of known storage and
production sites in the earliest stages of the strategic air campaign.
--General Norman Schwarzkopf, 1997 Senate Testimony 1690

After the war, in connection with the work done by UNSCOM, additional information became available
on locations where Iraq had produced, stored, and deployed chemical agents during the war. These sites
are shown in Figure 2. Multiple additional sites were identified where Iraq had deployed binary nerve
agent weapons, that is, weapons that contained compounds that could be converted to nerve agents by
adding a second ingredient before firing. Many suspected chemical agent release and exposure events
have since been evaluated by DOD and CIA, leading to two types of findings: (1) determinations of
whether a chemical release is likely to have occurred, and (2) determinations of whether U.S. personnel
were likely to have been exposed to chemical agents. This distinction is important, since there are a
number of sites in Iraq where CIA and DOD have reported massive releases of nerve and blister agents as
a result of Coalition bombing. For example, a 1996 CIA report indicated that during the air campaign, 17
metric tons of sarin were released at Iraq’s primary chemical weapons and storage facility, Al Muthanna,
and 15 metric tons of mustard and 2.9 metric tons of sarin were released at the Muhammadiyat munitions
storage site.1589 Both targets were in central Iraq, hundreds of kilometers from the nearest U.S. troop
locations, and CIA’s dispersion models indicated that troops would not have been exposed to chemicals
as a result of these releases. A later CIA report revised sarin release estimates dramatically downward
from the 1996 estimates, and increased estimated levels of mustard released, but continued to assert that
the chemicals had not reached U.S. troops.1591,1629
In 2002, CIA reported its findings related to 20 suspected chemical agent releases during the Gulf
War.1591 Twelve of the scenarios investigated were found to have resulted in a “definite” chemical agent
release, one as a “likely” release, six as “suspect” releases, and one as “unlikely.” Of the 20 chemical
agent releases evaluated, only Khamisiyah was found to have resulted in a “likely” chemical exposure to
U.S. troops. In addition, DOD has conducted investigations of many suspected chemical exposure events,
some of which overlap with the releases evaluated by CIA. The DOD findings are provided in 20 “Case
Narrative” reports, which sometimes encompass multiple chemical detection incidents by certain units or
in certain areas.1603 Again, only events at Khamisiyah were found to have resulted in “likely” U.S. troop
exposures to chemical agents.1630 Exposures were found to be “unlikely” for most of the remaining
events,1609,1627,1628 although a chemical agent detection by Czech chemical specialists was identified as
“valid” in one report, and several other detections were judged to be “indeterminate.”1610,1614,1617,1629
Because our Committee has not conducted detailed investigations of the many reported chemical events
during the Gulf War, we cannot offer independent judgments about whether specific exposures did or did
not occur. Our review of DOD and CIA reports does indicate, however, that conclusions related to
specific incidents are often less conclusive than might be suggested by summary findings of “likely” or
“unlikely.” For example DOD findings frequently depend on whether or not the presence of a chemical

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  143

Figure 2. Iraqi Chemical Weapons Facilities and Declared Sites Where
Chemical Agent-Filled Munitions Were Deployed During Desert Storm

Source: U.S. Central Intelligence Agency1591

agent was verified based on two confirmed tests using different analytic methods. As a result, situations
in which two tests were done but records not retained, or where two different types of tests were not done,
or where putative exposures occurred below levels detectable by monitoring equipment would not have
been verified by post-hoc evaluations.
A compelling example is provided in a 2004 GAO report that detailed 20 positive chemical agent
detections between January 17 and 23, 1991, by U.S., Czech, French, and British units.1683 On some days
during that period, multiple detections of the same type of agent were reported by different units from
different nations, in close proximity. For example, U.S., French, and Czech units all reported detecting
sarin or an unknown nerve agent near King Khalid Military City (KKMC) in northern Saudi Arabia on
January 20, 1991. The January 17-23 period coincides with the initiation of Coalition air bombing in
Iraq. The GAO report and testimony provided to a Congressional committee also indicate that this
period coincided with a stationary weather pattern identified by meteorological satellite imagery in areas
where troops were located in northern Saudi Arabia.1683,1684

144  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

A thermal plume rose into the atmosphere over the largest Iraqi chemical warfare agent
research, production, and storage facility at Muthanna after Coalition aircraft and missile
bombardment. Seventeen metric tons of Sarin were reportedly destroyed during these
attacks, which began on January 17, 1991. These thermal and visual plumes extended
directly toward the areas where those same chemical warfare agents were detected and
confirmed by Czechoslovak chemical specialists.
--Jim Tuite, 1997 Congressional Testimony1684

Taken together, this information suggests that Coalition bombing in the early days of the air war resulted
in one or more releases from chemical weapons production or storage sites in central Iraq that, aided by
weather patterns, drifted over the Saudi border. There, chemical agents were detected by different units
over a period of several days. But both DOD and CIA have investigated many of the events described
and have concluded that this did not occur, that is, that chemical agents released with Coalition air
bombing did not drift far enough south to have been detected in northern Saudi Arabia.
The Department of Defense originally reported findings from an investigation of Czech chemical agent
detections in November, 1993.1601 At that time, the Secretary of Defense announced that Czech chemical
specialists had reported very low levels of sarin and mustard on several dates and that DOD experts had
found the detections to be credible. Czech chemical units had the most sophisticated chemical
capabilities available during the Gulf War, with detection systems that were highly sensitive for both
nerve and blister agents.1610
In 1998, an OSAGWI Case Narrative described a series of Czech nerve agent detections on January 19,
1991.1610 That morning, two separate teams of Czech chemical specialists reported near-simultaneous
detections of low-level sarin about a mile apart near Hafir Al-Batin, in northern Saudi Arabia. Thirty
minutes later, a third detection was reported by another unit about 30 miles away. In each case, the initial
detections were retested with a second type of detector and also found to be positive. An air sample
collected for further testing at a laboratory in KKMC also tested positive for sarin. The detected levels of
nerve agents were below the sensitivity thresholds of equipment used by other Coalition partners. U.S.
specialists who arrived in the area four hours later did not detect sarin using U.S. equipment. Still, DOD
concluded that the detections had been valid and credible, although the source of the sarin was not
ascertained.1610 In 2002, CIA released a report that included findings on the Czech January 19 chemical
detections. CIA officials had earlier identified these detections as credible,276,1610 but the 2002 report
concluded that the detections that day were “unlikely,” based on CIA’s inability to identify a plausible
source for sarin in the area, and newly raised questions about the reliability of the detections.1591
Although an extensive amount of information has been reported on these events, the lines of evidence that
either favor or discount the presence of chemical agent that day are less-than-definitive. It can only be
concluded that low levels of nerve agent might have been present in the northern part of Saudi Arabia on
January 19, 1991. Even if detections were accepted as valid, it is not known the extent to which U.S.
troops might have been exposed as a result.
The challenges and conflicting conclusions described with respect to this particular incident on this single
day illustrate the difficulties inherent in determining if and where military personnel might have been
exposed to low level chemical agents during the Gulf War. Other reported incidents, including additional
Czech detections, are also associated with both supporting and negative indicators.1610,1614,1627 As a result,
the extent of exposure to low level chemical agents in theater remains an open question.
Recent information concerning Iraq’s intended use of chemical weapons. In the years
following the Gulf War, several investigations suggested that Iraq had prepared to use chemical weapons
during the Gulf War, and that some limited use may have occurred.388,1560,1688 Both DOD and CIA have
consistently maintained that, based on their investigations, there is no credible evidence of Iraqi offensive

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  145

use of chemical agents during the Gulf War.1284,1589-1591 This issue was raised again in recent years, with
findings from a comprehensive investigation, conducted by the Iraq Survey Group (ISG), of Iraq’s
weapons of mass destruction (WMD) capabilities prior to the 2003 Iraq War.693 The ISG report provides
additional information about Iraq’s deployment of chemical weapons during the 1991 Gulf War, and
evidence that Saddam Hussein had authorized their use against Coalition forces. It also documents Iraqi
attempts to use sarin against the Shia population in southern Iraq in March of 1991, to quell an uprising
after the U.S.-declared ceasefire. Iraq’s attempt to bomb the Shia with sarin was not successful, however.
This was thought to be because the sarin-filled bombs had not detonated when released from low-flying
helicopters, the only aircraft Iraq could utilize under terms of the ceasefire. As an alternative, the Iraqi
military dropped large aerial bombs filled with CS (tear gas) in the areas of Karbala and Najaf, an
estimated 200 bombs over a two week period. CS is not technically classified as a chemical warfare
agent, but is nonetheless a toxic chemical that can cause acute tearing, respiratory problems, and burning
and blistering of the skin.
The U.S. military was well familiar with Iraq’s brutal attacks in areas of Southern Iraq during this period.
A defense intelligence bulletin in early March of 1991 had warned that Iraq might resort to the use of
chemical weapons to quash the Shia rebellion.1617 Refugees, some of them seriously injured, had
streamed into U.S. controlled areas after the attacks began. U.S. forces provided humanitarian support,
and medical teams treated large numbers of wounded civilians.1617 Rev. Joel Graves, a Committee
member and Gulf War veteran, reported that on March 15, members of his unit, stationed south of Basra,
had become acutely ill in the evening and that chemical alarms had sounded nearby. The next day, his
commander informed him that mustard gas was thought to have been used in Iraqi attacks against the Shia
in Basra, and may have drifted towards U.S. troop locations with the strong southerly winds.521 A joint
staff message of March 28, 1991, indicated that Shia refugees had reported Iraqi attacks on Basra with
both mustard and white phosphorous in mid March.1599 Although the ISG report indicates that nerve
agents were unsuccessfully deployed, the events described by the Iraq Survey Group provide a sobering
indication of Saddam Hussein’s willingness to attack with chemicals, even when Iraq was occupied by
Coalition forces.
Summary. Exposure to chemical weapons in the Gulf War. During the Gulf War, military
defenses against chemical weapons emphasized detection and response to high level, acutely dangerous
exposures, to protect troops from potentially dire consequences. There are no indications that U.S. or
Coalition forces encountered large scale, high dosage exposures to chemical weapons during the Gulf
War. Since the war, however, concerns have emerged about possible effects of lower level chemical
agent exposures and their association with the health problems affecting Gulf War veterans.
Despite extensive government efforts, substantial questions remain about the extent to which Gulf War
military personnel were exposed to low-level chemical agents in theater. Uncertainties are associated
with several factors. First, it is unlikely that low levels of airborne chemical agents would generally have
been identified or documented by military personnel. Monitoring systems had little capacity to detect
chemical agents at levels that do not cause immediate symptoms. Second, although the Department of
Defense estimates that about 100,000 personnel may have been exposed to low levels of sarin and
cyclosarin nerve agents as a result of weapons demolitions at Khamisiyah, serious questions have been
raised about the accuracy of government models used to determine who was exposed, and at what levels.
Third, unanswered questions and limited information related to other reported chemical events leave open
the possibility that additional chemical exposures might have occurred during and after the Gulf War, in
locations other than those affected by the Khamisiyah demolitions.

146  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Health Effects of Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants
A neurotoxic response to a single large dose of a substance often predicts neither the
existence nor the type of response seen in animals repeatedly exposed to lower levels of the
same agent.
-- Biological Principles of Chemical Neurotoxicity, 20001463

Health effects of pyridostigmine bromide
Information concerning biological and health effects of PB is available from both animal research and
human studies. Pyridostigmine is a carbamate compound that temporarily, and reversibly, binds AChE.
A comprehensive review of the available literature was provided in a 1999 RAND report, which
identified several mechanisms whereby PB could plausibly contribute to veterans’ chronic symptoms.504
These included chronic dysregulation of acetylcholine and persistent damaging effects on peripheral
neuromuscular junctions. The RAND report concluded that PB could not be ruled out as a possible cause
or contributor to Gulf War illness.
Pyridostigmine research in animals. Pyridostigmine normally does not cross the blood brain
barrier in significant amounts, due to a positively charged quaternary ammonium group. This confers an
important advantage for using PB as a nerve agent pretreatment over other reversible AChE inhibitors,
since direct effects on the central nervous system would be expected to be minimal. The importance of
brain penetration in determining some effects of PB is demonstrated by recent research from the Lovelace
Respiratory Research Institute, which evaluated effects of anticholinesterase compounds on the immune
response and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) function. Pyridostigmine administered
subcutaneously had no effect on antibody response or corticosteroid levels. But when injected directly
into the brain, PB significantly inhibited antibody response and reduced circulating corticosteroid levels
in the same way as physostigmine, an anticholinesterase drug that readily crosses the blood brain
barrier.868
Animal studies conducted since the 1980s have demonstrated that PB can adversely affect peripheral
nerve function and structure,25,364,651 and can also have central and behavioral effects, especially when
given at higher doses.144,366,648,916,1401,1443,1793,1807 Research in animal models has also described acute
adverse effects on gastrointestinal function with relatively low doses of PB,816 and autonomic, immune,
respiratory, and cardiovascular effects at moderate-to-high doses.129,771,1188,1379,1439,1814
Although multiple studies have evaluated biological effects of PB in animal models in recent years, most
have focused on effects of PB in combination with other Gulf War-related exposures and with stress.
These have included assessments of PB in combination with low-level sarin, pesticides and insect
repellants, caffeine, and vaccines, as will be described in a later section.
Effects of low-level pyridostigmine on brain and behavior. It has long been observed that PB can
produce significant, acute effects on the brain and behavior when given in high doses.144,366,916,1401 In
recent years, multiple studies have also identified significant central nervous system effects resulting from
low-dose exposure to PB. Dutch investigators have reported that primates exhibited significant EEG
abnormalities after receiving low dose PB for four days.1706 Five studies conducted in rodent models
since 2000 have reported that low-to-moderate doses of PB, administered by gavage on a schedule of
repeated exposures over time, produced significant deficits on a variety of tests of learning and
behavior.10,11,14,1704,1705 Animals exposed to PB in these studies are described as exhibiting no overt signs
of cholinergic toxicity or ill health.
A consistent feature of the behavioral studies is that repeat, low and moderate dose exposure to PB, over a
period of days to weeks, produced central effects not reported from studies using single, brief exposures,

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  147

even at higher doses. Additional effects of repeated PB dosing on the central nervous system have been
demonstrated by researchers from Purdue University and the East Orange, New Jersey VAMC. Purdue
investigators reported that repeated, low-to-moderate doses of PB, administered over a four day period
produced only a limited decrease in brain AChE activity, but yielded extensive neuronal apoptosis in the
cortex, striatum, and hippocampus of treated rats, in a dose-response pattern. The effect was sustained in
the cortex over a 30 day period following cessation of PB treatment. Investigators suggested that the
repeated dosing schedule enabled PB to cross the blood brain barrier and act directly on brain cells. 900
In addition, New Jersey researchers have reported delayed central effects of low-to-high doses of PB,
administered in drinking water over a seven day period. In exposed rats, a persistently exaggerated
acoustic startle response first appeared 15 days after PB treatment had been completed.1387 The delayed
effect was only observed in a strain of rats (WKY) with low activity of the PB-scavenging enzyme
butyrylcholinesterase (BChE).1388 Investigators suggested that individuals with low BChE activity may
have increased sensitivity to delayed, central effects of PB.
Pyridostigmine and stress. Widespread interest in the potential for PB to interact synergistically with
stress was stimulated by a 1996 Israeli study indicating that central nervous system effects of PB were
markedly enhanced, in animal models, by an intense stressor—forced swimming. Investigators suggested
that conditions of extreme stress rendered the blood brain barrier more permeable to PB.460 This initial
observation was not supported by subsequent findings from different laboratories, which found that
stressors of various types did not enhance levels of PB in the brain or lead to marked decreases in whole
brain AChE activity.519,857,1394,1414,1444,1539 Several studies did report, however, that PB exposure alone
reduced brain levels of AChE to a limited degree, independent of whether animals had been stressed or
not.85,900,1414
Recent studies have reported findings of other types that do suggest interactive effects between PB and
stress, however. Investigators at Wright State University found that PB, alone, had no effect on heart rate
or blood pressure in mice. But in combination with a relatively mild stressor (intermittent shaker stress),
PB produced significant autonomic alterations, specifically, increased low frequency heart rate variability
and baroreflex sensitivity.714 Researchers from the East Orange, New Jersey, VA reported that
administering an intense stressor to rats prior to PB exposure resulted in reduced AChE levels in the basal
forebrain/striatum but not in other brain areas.115 And French investigators have reported that PB, in
conjunction with stress, produced increased levels of the serotonin metabolite 5-HIAA in multiple regions
of the brain, and increased dopamine levels in the striatum/hippocampus.1528 Pyridostigmine has also
been shown to interact synergistically with physical stress in peripheral tissues. Research from Southern
Illinois University indicates that low-dose PB, when given concurrently with an exercise stressor, resulted
in significantly reduced levels of AChE and increased indicators of muscle tension and oxidative stress in
skeletal muscle, effects not seen with either PB or exercise alone.703,1442,1713
In assessing the literature on stress/PB interactions in animal models, the most important distinctions
appear to relate to the specific outcomes assessed and exposure protocols used. Overall, studies that did
not identify interactive effects between PB and stress focused on whether the combination increased
central AChE activity and permeability of the blood brain barrier. Most of these studies also assessed
acute effects, following single doses of PB at low-to-high levels. In contrast, nearly all studies that did
identify stress/PB interactions assessed effects of low-dose, repeat exposure to PB over a period of five to
14 days. In addition, these studies assessed outcomes other than changes in central AChE activity and
blood brain barrier permeability. Taken together, these studies suggest that interactive effects between
PB and stress may occur, but are not reflected by a general reduction in central AChE activity or a general
increase in blood brain barrier permeability, and are also not observable as acute effects following single
exposures. It is not possible to determine from these studies, however, whether central effects were due
to PB acting directly in the brain, or indirectly, through effects stimulated in the periphery.85,116,1528,1704

148  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Human studies of the effects of PB. Short-term effects of PB have been evaluated in a relatively
large number of human studies in relation to its military use as a nerve agent pretreatment, its use as a
treatment for myasthenia gravis, its use in testing for growth hormone (GH) abnormalities, and other
applications. In the early 1990s, multiple studies conducted by the U.S. and Israeli militaries evaluated
health and performance effects of PB, taken over a brief time period, in small samples of healthy human
volunteers, usually military personnel. Health parameters were assessed under a variety of conditions,
including flight simulation, exercise, and heat stress. Under conditions of heat and exercise stress, PB
taken over several days produced significant reductions in heart rate, blood pressure, and handgrip
strength compared to placebo.271,1762,1763 But overall, few significant differences were identified, and there
were no indications that PB impaired work performance.53,271,410,411,476,700,1296,1762,1788 A more recent study,
in fact, identified improved reaction time on tests of memory and attention in healthy subjects taking PB,
perhaps due to effects of AChE inhibition on neuromuscular synaptic efficiency.273
Multiple studies conducted in clinical settings have documented rates and types of acute side effects
associated with PB. Milder effects include abdominal and digestive discomfort, runny nose, and excess
salivation and sweating, while more severe reactions can include diarrhea, muscle weakness and spasms,
and vomiting. Pyridostigmine also stimulates GH secretion, and this effect is used to test for GH
abnormalities in different clinical conditions.347,487 Acute side effects reported in conjunction with a
single use of PB in GH testing are similar to those seen in other clinical studies of PB. Gastrointestinal
symptoms (e.g., nausea, cramping, flatulence, diarrhea) are most common.679 Side effects appear to be
more frequent with higher PB dosages,1819 but are generally tolerable and transient.
A detailed clinical study that evaluated symptoms reported by healthy subjects who used PB over several
days, at the level recommended for use in the Gulf War, also indicated that gastrointestinal side effects
were most common. Few side effects were reported in the first day of dosing but more side effects,
overall, were reported by subjects taking PB than those taking placebo. Symptoms were generally mild
and short lived, more frequently reported by women than men, and more pronounced with higher doses of
PB.272 Several studies have also reported rates of acute side effects from PB use by military personnel
during the Gulf War. Studies indicate that use of PB during the Gulf War was associated with higher
rates of side effects than has commonly been observed in clinical settings,781,1396 and suggest that side
effects may relate to longer term illness, as will be described in a later section.
In both clinical and war zone settings, a subset of individuals who take PB develop side effects from
taking relatively low doses of PB. The factors that determine who does or does not react to PB are not
well understood, however. There are indications from two reports that symptoms associated with PB use
are not related to the degree of peripheral cholinesterase inhibition.272,1396 One case report of an Israeli
soldier who suffered severe side effects after taking PB during the Gulf War indicated that he was a rare
homozygous carrier of the atypical A allele for the butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) gene. BChE is a
circulating enzyme that serves as a scavenger that irreversibly binds cholinesterase inhibitors, thus sparing
AChE. The Israeli soldier’s BChE was found to have very poor affinity for binding PB, leading authors
to suggest that some individuals may be more genetically susceptible to adverse effects of PB.929 This
hypothesis has been further explored in relation to Gulf War illness, as will be described in a later section.
No human studies have evaluated long-term effects that might develop or persist over an extended period
after short term use of PB. Information on side effects from long-term, high-dosage use of PB is available
from studies of myasthenia gravis patients,119,627 who typically use between 300 and 1200 mg. of PB per
day over many years.52,169 Effects of PB in myasthenia gravis patients cannot be directly compared to
effects expected in healthy soldiers, however. Myasthenia gravis is associated with severely reduced
cholinergic activity, and PB treatment is used specifically to increase acetylcholine in order to bring
patients’ neuromuscular function to a more normal state. Reports indicate that the most common side
effects of PB treatment for myasthenia gravis patients include diarrhea, increased salivary secretions, and

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sweating. Symptoms are reported by 34 - 54 percent of myasthenia gravis patients, are more problematic
with higher PB dosages, but are seldom severe enough to cause discontinuation of treatment.119,627
Pyridostigmine bromide has been associated with autonomic alterations in several human studies. A
single low dose of PB has been shown to reduce cardiovascular response to physical and mental
exertion.1347,1386 Four 30 mg. doses of PB, taken at eight hour intervals over a 24 hour period, produced
significantly lower heart rate and significant increases in time domain measures of heart rate variability,
compared to placebo.1129 Research conducted by Midwest Research Institute identified more pronounced
autonomic alterations with somewhat longer PB use. After four to five days of taking either 30 mg. or 60
mg. of PB every eight hours, healthy subjects exhibited slower heart rates, significantly reduced heart rate
variability in the high frequency range, and significantly increased variability in the low frequency range
compared to subjects who had taken placebo.273 Reduced high frequency power was substantial,
averaging 21 percent at the 30 mg. dose, and was significantly correlated with the degree to which PB
inhibited AChE and BChE activity. Findings suggest a central nervous system effect of PB.
Investigators pointed out, however, that this central effect might not require PB to have crossed the blood
brain barrier, since vagal control centers are reciprocally innervated by the medullary area postrema,
which lies outside the blood brain barrier.273
Pyridostigmine bromide has been suggested to provide some clinical benefits for patients with autonomic
irregularities and patients with multisymptom illnesses. It has recently been investigated as a treatment
for neurogenic orthostatic hypotension, a condition associated with impaired autonomic regulation of
blood pressure. Initial reports suggest that PB improves standing blood pressure, without adversely
affecting supine blood pressure.472,1412 In a six month, placebo-controlled trial of 165 fibromyalgia
patients, PB was found to provide significant improvements in sleep and anxiety measures, but no
improvement in pain.723 A case series report has also described substantial symptomatic improvement in
three chronic fatigue syndrome patients treated with PB.777
Overall, diverse studies of the effects of PB in humans have indicated that PB has a low risk profile for
acute adverse side effects when taken by healthy subjects over brief time periods in clinical settings.
Little information is available concerning long-term effects of PB used by healthy subjects, although side
effects described in clinical settings are described as transient. Several studies have indicated that PB,
given to soldiers in wartime, induces a higher level of acute side effects than is typically observed in
clinical studies. Animal studies indicate that PB, even at relatively low doses, can affect the brain and that
repeated dosing schedule over an extended period of time produces central nervous system effects not
observed with single doses. Animal studies have also reported limited interactive effects between stress
and PB, although the majority of studies indicate that stress does not enhance PB passage into the brain.
Both animal and human studies have demonstrated effects of low dose PB on autonomic nervous system
function, at dosages too low to cause serious symptoms or excessive peripheral AChE inhibition. It is not
known, however, how long these effects are sustained.

150  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Health effects of pesticides and insect repellants used in the Gulf War
Overexposure to pesticides, particularly organophosphates and carbamates, may have
contributed to the unexplained illnesses reported by some Gulf War veterans.
--Environmental Exposure Report: Pesticides, U.S. Department of Defense, 20031632

Chemical pesticides and insect repellants have been in widespread use since the middle of the last
century. Many pesticides are neurotoxic by design, that is, they are developed to kill insects by attacking
their nervous systems. Thousands of compounds have been developed for use against different insects
and other pests, for application in different settings. The Department of Defense estimates that 64
different pesticide and insect repellant products, with 37 different active ingredients, were used by
military personnel during the Gulf War. The 15 pesticide products identified by DOD as being the
pesticide products of greatest concern in relation to the health of Gulf War veterans are listed in Table 2.
Although these 15 products represent a diverse mix of chemical compounds, the majority fall into two
chemical classes—organophosphates and carbamates—both of which are AChE inhibitors. The list also
includes two pyrethroid compounds, one organochlorine, and two DEET products.
Many thousands of research studies have evaluated biological effects of pesticides in animal models and
health effects in human populations. Detailed information from this large literature is compiled in
comprehensive textbooks on pesticide toxicology. New findings related to toxicological effects of
pesticides and insect repellants continue to emerge at a rapid pace. In recent years, this research has
provided important insights into health effects of lower-level and chronic pesticide exposures in human
populations, including associations with persistent symptomatic illness. The U.S. government has
launched a number of important research initiatives to better understand effects of pesticides on human
health. This includes the Agricultural Health Study, a large interagency project to characterize acute and
long term health effects in nearly 90,000 Americans who work with pesticides, and their family
members.1686 This longitudinal, multi-state project is evaluating diverse health parameters and has
produced important research findings, some of which have relevance to issues considered in this report.
In the last several years, major reports have been released internationally by government and scientific
panels concerning effects of pesticide exposures on the public health. These reports have raised
awareness of recent findings on potential associations between pesticides and a broad spectrum of human
diseases, including difficult-to-diagnose multisymptom conditions. This includes a review of the
scientific literature on health effects of pesticides from the Ontario College of Family Physicians, which
concluded that “there is a high level of consistency in results to indicate a wide range of pesticide-related
clinical and subclinical health effects” and that “exposure to all the commonly used pesticides—
phenoxyherbicides, organophosphates, carbamates, and pyrethrins—has shown positive associations with
adverse health effects.”1155 The report urges physicians to become more aware of health effects of
pesticides in order to better educate the community and treat their patients. A 2005 report on human
health affects of agricultural pesticides from the British Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution
described the complex issue of discerning chronic health effects resulting from unmeasured and varying
combinations of pesticide exposures. The Commission noted that “the clinical awareness of general
practitioners and specialists needs to be improved in order to improve the investigation of people with
chronic, ill-defined health effects.”1324
A number of reports describing toxicological issues and potential health effects specifically related to
pesticide use in the Gulf War have also been published. In addition to the detailed investigation of
pesticide use by Gulf War military personnel, DOD commissioned RAND to review scientific research
related to potential health effects of pesticide use in the Gulf War.218 The 2000 RAND report provided
information pertaining to each of the major classes of pesticides and insect repellants of greatest concern
used by military personnel in theater. It pointed out that understanding effects of pesticides on the health
of Gulf War veterans is complicated by a number of factors, including variation in individual

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  151

vulnerability to adverse effects of neurotoxicants, differences in the degree to which pesticides used by
veterans were absorbed into their skin and circulation, and unknown effects of combinations of multiple
pesticides or pesticides in combination with other exposures in theater. The RAND report concluded that
pesticides, specifically AChE inhibitors, could be among the agents that contributed to the development
of veterans’ multisymptom illness and called for additional research to investigate the association.
The Institute of Medicine (IOM) conducted a detailed review of human studies related to health effects of
pesticide exposures as part of the Gulf War and Health series of reports.682 The report focused primarily
on effects of pesticides in relation to multiple types of cancer, with some information on effects of
pesticides on diagnosed neurological diseases and reproductive outcomes. No conclusions were provided
concerning possible associations between pesticide exposures in theater and Gulf War multisymptom
illness.
Information concerning health effects of the major classes of pesticides and insect repellants used during
the Gulf War is briefly summarized below, with attention to health issues relevant to Gulf War veterans.
Most scientific research on pesticides has evaluated effects of individual chemicals that develop over a
relatively brief time period. Human research has historically focused primarily on effects of high-level
exposures associated with pesticide poisoning. However, a growing body of research has evaluated
human health effects of lower-level exposures and exposures experienced over longer periods of time.
Nearly all studies that have evaluated effects of combinations of pesticides and repellants used in the Gulf
War have been conducted in the past 12 years, using animal models, in connection with the federal Gulf
War research effort. This research will be described in a later section that addresses effects of
combinations of Gulf War exposures.
Organophosphate pesticides. Organophosphate pesticides (OPs) constitute the largest number of
chemicals identified as pesticides of potential concern used during the Gulf War. These include
chlorpyrifos, diazinon, and malathion, used in different concentrations by pesticide applicators as area
fogs and surface sprays. They also include dichlorvos-containing pest strips, issued for personal use to
the general military population, and azamethiphos crystals used as fly bait, which was purchased
locally.1632
Organophosphate compounds are a large and diverse family of chemicals that include hundreds of
different pesticides, as well as several types of chemical warfare agents.387,932 They are among the most
extensively studied of any chemicals in toxicology. Acute effects of excess exposure to OP pesticides are
those previously described for AChE inhibiting chemicals generally, and include effects on the central
nervous system, autonomic nervous system, and skeletal muscles. There are also a growing number of
indicators that OPs can exert neurotoxic effects through mechanisms other than AChE
inhibition.216,982,1166,1436,1553 In addition, recent studies in animal models have demonstrated that repeated
exposures to OP pesticides, even at relatively low doses, can produce persistent neurochemical and
behavioral alterations that do not occur with single exposures at similar or higher
doses.29,775,823,1226,1251,1530,1531,1553
Symptoms that result from acute OP poisoning usually develop within minutes to hours and resolve in
hours to a few days, but there are exceptions. A delayed reaction to poisoning by malathion or diazinon
has been described in some individuals, a condition known as “intermediate syndrome.” This condition
develops between one and four days after OP exposure and is associated with severe muscle weakness.
Serious cases can lead to respiratory arrest but if respiration is maintained, recovery generally takes
several weeks.754
Poisoning by some OP compounds can also produce, in a minority of cases, a chronic condition known as
organophosphate induced delayed neuropathy (OPIDN). Onset of OPIDN varies with the specific
compound and dosage of exposure, but ranges from 10 days to five weeks after OP poisoning. Symptoms

152  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

usually begin with cramping muscle pain in the lower extremities, followed by numbness, parasthesia,
and progressive muscle weakness. More severe cases can also involve the upper extremities. The
condition results from inhibition not of AChE, but of a second enzyme, neuropathy target esterase (NTE),
which is not affected by all OP compounds.718,934 Only two compounds widely used in the Gulf War,
chlorpyrifos and dichlorvos, have been associated with OPIDN, and only following poisoning episodes
involving extremely high doses.
Persistent neurological and cognitive symptoms have long been described in some individuals following
recovery from acute OP poisoning, and also in relation to long term OP exposure in the absence of
poisoning.9,344,483,1313 Neurotoxicologists from the U.S. and the U.K. have proposed the existence of a
long-term OP-associated neurotoxic syndrome that develops with chronic low-level OP exposure or
persists after substantial recovery from acute OP poisoning.9,316,705 Persistent central nervous system
effects are notable in the proposed condition, as opposed to the prominent peripheral effects associated
with OPIDN. Based on his and other research teams’ investigations in animal models, Dr. Mohamed
Abou-Donia of Duke University has suggested these persistent symptoms are associated with neuronal
oxidative injury and apoptotic cell death in multiple brain regions following OP exposure.9
The issue of persistent central nervous system effects following lower-level OP exposures has been
controversial,197,387,932 as have questions related to chronic subclinical encephalopathies associated with
other neurotoxicants.31,532,1781 In IOM’s Gulf War and Health report on pesticides, the review panel
concluded there is sufficient evidence that OP poisoning is associated with long-term, measurable
neurobehavioral deficits but did not reach consensus on whether measurable deficits were associated with
OP exposures in the absence of earlier poisoning.682 Aside from questions related to measured
neurobehavioral deficits, a growing number of epidemiologic studies in diverse populations have
consistently identified elevated rates of chronic symptoms and multisymptom illness in relation to long
term, low-level pesticide exposure.
Carbamate pesticides. Carbamates are chemically distinct from OPs, but also exert neurotoxic effects
by inhibiting the enzyme AChE. There are about 25 different types of carbamate pesticides currently in
use.387 Three—bendiocarb, propoxur, and methomyl—have been identified as pesticides of potential
concern in relation to the Gulf War. Bendiocarb and propoxur were sprayed on surfaces and in cracks
and crevices by pesticide applicators to kill flies, mosquitoes, and flying insects. In addition, fly baits
containing the carbamate methomyl were issued by the military and also purchased locally, and used both
by trained pesticide personnel and by individual service members.1632
Effects of acute overexposure to carbamate pesticides are similar to those described for other
anticholinesterase compounds, and result from the buildup of acetylcholine at cholinergic nerve terminals.
Central nervous system pathology and neurobehavioral effects from higher-dose carbamates exposure
have been described in animal models. Reported cases of carbamate poisoning in humans have included
large incidents involving ingestion of contaminated food and water, and accidental exposure from aerial
crop spraying. The severity of symptoms is dependent on the specific compound and dosage received.386
Unlike OP pesticides, the chemical process by which carbamates inactivate AChE is reversible, and
AChE enzyme activity is reestablished within hours after exposure. A persistent condition similar to
OPIDN has not been described following poisoning by carbamate pesticides, but a limited number of
single case reports of prolonged neurotoxicity have been described following massive exposures.386
DEET insect repellant. DEET is the acronym used for the chemical compound n,n-diethyl-m-toluamide,
a broad spectrum insect repellant that has a long history of use worldwide. The RAND pesticide study
identified DEET as the “pesticide” product most frequently used by military personnel in the Gulf War.
As listed in Table 2, personnel were issued creams and sticks that contained 33 percent DEET, and a high
concentration liquid that contained 75 percent DEET. DEET was intended for use on areas of exposed
skin, although it appears that it may have also been used on uniforms.

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  153

Civilian use DEET formulations typically contain 10-25 percent DEET 1464 and have a good safety record
when used as directed.774,1157,1248 DEET works as an insect repellant, that is, it reduces the number of
insect bites by discouraging insects from landing on the skin. The chemical mechanism by which this
occurs is not known, however.1076,1509 There is relatively little systematic research on effects of DEET in
humans. It appears to be a neurotoxicant, with a limited number of case reports of overexposure
associated with encephalopathy and seizures.170,390,573,1157,1438 Dermatitis has also been reported.1276
Studies indicate that in animals given extremely high doses, DEET accumulates at high levels in the
brain, adrenal glands, and lungs1297 and produces marked effects on central and peripheral nerves,
including edema in the myelin and a patchy spongiform myelinopathy.1720 Lower doses have been
associated with limited adverse effects in rodents,1365 but with tremor, hyperactivity, excess salivation,
and vomiting in dogs.1366 DEET has not been shown to inhibit AChE activity, but DEET toxicity in cats
has been associated with symptoms similar to those associated with AChE inhibition—hypersalivation,
tremors, seizures.1464 There is some indication that synergistic effects between DEET and AChE
compounds occur through pathways other than AChE inhibition.1076
DEET has been considered a useful compound for enhancing dermal absorption of other compounds
through the skin,1795 although this has been called into question by more recent studies.110 DEET applied
to the skin can accumulate and remain in deeper skin layers for an extended time period—weeks or
months.1276,1464 Studies indicate that up to 17 percent is absorbed into the circulation428,1297,1384 and can be
retained in the body for an extended period, with one study indicating that about half of absorbed DEET
is excreted over a five day period.1297 Absorption of DEET is enhanced when it is provided in ethanol
solution,1241,1384,1490 and can also be enhanced by coadministration of sunscreen.573,1314 Additional research
on synergistic effects of DEET with other Gulf War exposures is described in a later section.
Pyrethroid insecticides. Synthetic pyrethroids are a class of compounds derived from pyrethrins,
naturally occurring chemicals found in chrysanthemums. They include permethrin, a compound issued as
a spray to treat uniforms and bedding in the Gulf War, and d-phenothrin, a compound sprayed in tents and
other enclosed areas to knock down and kill flying insects. These compounds act both as insect repellants
and as insecticides.1722 Permethrin is a particularly effective long-term repellant product for fabrics
because it retains its potency for an extended period after application. The 0.5 % permethrin sprayed onto
uniforms in the Gulf War and still used by the military retains its repellant activity for six weeks, and
through six launderings.62 Absorption of pyrethroids through the skin varies by species, with the specific
formulation used, and with the area of the body to which it is applied.1407,1768 Once absorbed, pyrethroids
are widely dispersed throughout different tissues and metabolized by carboxylesterases in the liver.1316,1722
Pyrethroids are neurotoxicants and, at very high doses, can have adverse effects on both the central and
peripheral nervous systems. Their best known mechanism of action involves effects on voltage-gated
sodium channels that result in alterations in nerve cell excitability.163,1258,1722 Multiple studies have also
described additional pyrethroid targets and effects that include enhanced release of acetylcholine and
alterations in other neurotransmitter systems.351,392,400,637,1026,1255,1258,1547
Although highly toxic to insects, pyrethroids have long been considered relatively safe for mammals. In
animal studies, extremely high doses of non-cyano pyrethroids such as permethrin produce symptoms of
aggressive behavior and increased sensitivity to external stimuli, followed by extensive tremors. More
subtle neurobehavioral effects have been observed at lower doses that produce no overt signs of
toxicity.149,297,1798
In humans who have been exposed occupationally or by accident to high doses of pyrethroids, symptoms
have included nausea, facial tingling, dizziness, headache, fatigue, burning and itching of the skin, eye
irritation, and respiratory symptoms.163,237,826,827,1836 At extremely high doses, convulsions and loss of
consciousness can occur.598 Permethrin-containing products are also used as topical treatments for

154  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

scabies and head lice in humans. In clinical trials, side effects have primarily included transitory skin
reactions, and infrequent allergic reactions.1722
Organochlorine insecticide. Organochlorines are a diverse class of insecticides that include DDT,
chlordane, and dieldrin. DOD has identified one organochlorine compound, lindane, as a pesticide of
potential concern during the Gulf War. During the war, lindane powder was used as a delousing agent by
military police units and others involved in processing Iraqi prisoners of war. Two ounce bottles of
lindane powder were also issued to individual troops in theater, primarily Army personnel, for their
personal use.1632
Lindane is a neurotoxicant that blocks the action of the neurotransmitter gamma aminobutyric acid
(GABA) by altering the flow of ions through neuronal membranes.732,1093 This leads to a persistent
hyperexcitation of post synaptic membranes, primarily in the central nervous system.387 Release of other
neurotransmitters can also be affected, including alterations in levels of dopamine, serotonin, and
norepinephrine.68,290,731,1292 Animals given high doses of lindane develop behavioral changes, loss of
balance, and seizures.1738 Effects vary both with the dosage and with the dosing schedule. Behavioral
and neurochemical effects of a single exposure to lindane have been shown to differ from those of
repeated, lower-dose exposures.489,1291 Lindane is also associated with chemical kindling, the
phenomenon by which chemical exposures potentiate a persistent increase in the sensitivity of brain cells
to electrical stimuli and seizures.34,489,490,730
Human overexposure to lindane is also associated with tremors, ataxia, and seizures, and several deaths
have been attributed to lindane poisoning.318,387,1132,1360,1508 In addition, studies of brain tissues of
Parkinson’s disease patients, at autopsy, have demonstrated significantly elevated levels of lindane and
dieldrin, compared to controls.278,446
Association of chronic disease with lower-level pesticide exposure. In the past decade, a
growing number of epidemiologic studies have identified human health effects associated with pesticide
exposures at levels that do not cause acute signs and symptoms or any indication of poisoning. These
prominently include: (1) links between pesticide exposure and chronic neurodegenerative diseases, and
(2) associations between pesticide exposure and elevated rates of chronic symptoms and multisymptom
illness. In addition, a large number of toxicological studies in animal models have explored biological
processes that potentially link lower-level pesticide exposure to the development of persistent
neurological sequelae.
The extensive literature implicating pesticide exposure in the development of chronic neurological
conditions has been reviewed and summarized in several publications.179,343,705,742,1075,1259 Human
populations evaluated in these studies have often been exposed to multiple pesticides over an extended
period of time, in different combinations and at different levels, the specifics of which usually are not
precisely known. Findings from studies of this type can therefore be affected by many of the problems
described in relation to Gulf War illness research, that is, potential inaccuracies in identifying “exposed”
vs. “unexposed” groups, the lack of useful biomarkers of exposure, and individual variability in specific
exposures and vulnerability to those exposures. Given such limitations, it is important that this literature
be considered broadly, taking into account patterns of associations across multiple studies and
populations.
Pesticide exposure and chronic neurodegenerative disease. The largest number of studies have
evaluated links between Parkinson’s disease and pesticide exposure.180,343,396,899 These have included
diverse types of toxicological studies using animal models, occupational studies of farmers and
agricultural workers, and epidemiologic studies of residents living in areas of high pesticide use.575,742
The British Medical Research Council recently reviewed this literature in detail and concluded that there
is a general consistency from human population research supporting an association between Parkinson’s

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  155

disease and exposure to pesticides generically, but insufficient evidence to implicate any specific
pesticide or combination of pesticides.180 Some epidemiologic studies have also linked chronic pesticide
exposure to increased risk for both ALS and Alzheimer’s disease, although research has been more
limited and results more mixed than those related to Parkinson’s disease.91,742,1001,1066,1348 In addition,
several studies have provided evidence of a gene-environment interaction in the risk for both ALS and
Parkinson’s disease. Both conditions have been found to occur at higher rates in individuals with genetic
variants of the paraoxonase (PON1) gene, which may cause them to be more vulnerable to adverse effects
from certain pesticides.126,1426,1840
Pesticide exposure in relation to chronic symptoms and multisymptom illness. In community and
occupational studies, chronic low-level exposure to pesticides has frequently been associated with
increased rates of symptoms and multisymptom illness similar to those affecting Gulf War veterans.742
The majority of studies have focused on effects of exposure to pesticides in general or effects of
organophosphate pesticides. Compared to unexposed controls, populations chronically exposed to
pesticides, either in relation to their occupation or where they live, have consistently been shown to report
higher rates of symptoms that include memory problems, difficulty concentrating, headache, fatigue,
difficulty sleeping, nausea, respiratory problems, and mood alterations.316,506,702,741,742,930,1283,1479
In addition to elevated symptom rates, there are a number of other parallels between ill Gulf War veterans
and populations chronically exposed to pesticides. Multiple studies have demonstrated associations
between chronic pesticide exposure and poorer performance on measures of cognition, affect, and
behavior.682,742 Most have identified reduced performance on a limited number of tests, with different
studies reporting decrements on different measures.1302,1320,1479,1484 In addition, workers chronically
exposed to organophosphate pesticides are reported to have a significantly increased risk of death due to
motor vehicle accidents compared to unexposed individuals, but no excess of disease-related mortality.880
There is also limited evidence that PON1 polymorphisms are associated with poorer cognitive
performance, neurological alterations, and increased symptoms in individuals chronically exposed to
pesticides.182,1005 Although symptoms associated with chronic pesticide exposure include muscle
weakness and tingling in the extremities, few studies have identified objective indicators of peripheral
nerve conduction or sensory abnormalities in pesticide-exposed populations.32,805,933,1479,1493
A multisymptom condition sometimes referred to as sheep dippers syndrome has been described in a
subgroup of British sheep farmers. Since 1984, sheep farmers in the United Kingdom have been required
to periodically immerse their animals in a pesticide dip to control the spread of a serious parasitic disease.
Since use of the organochlorine pesticide dieldrin was banned in the U.K., the sheep bath has consisted
largely of OP chemicals, prominently diazinon.1471 The constellation of symptoms reported by this
subgroup of sheep farmers is similar to the multisymptom illness affecting Gulf War veterans, and
includes chronic headache, memory and concentration problems, gastrointestinal difficulties, mood
alterations, and fatigue. Farmers have also commonly indicated that their symptoms continue long after
they have quit working with sheep and are no longer exposed to sheep dip.242,1471
Research studies conducted since the mid 1990s consistently indicate that exposed sheep farmers have
significantly more symptoms than unexposed controls.112,1209,1441,1483,1522 Sheep dip-exposed farmers also
exhibit significantly poorer performance on measures of attention and information processing,1483 but only
limited abnormalities on standard neurological examinations or tests of peripheral neuropathy.112,706,1209
Symptomatic sheep farmers have also been found to have a significantly higher rate of PON1
polymorphisms that provide poorer hydrolysis of diazinon, compared to nonsymptomatic sheep
farmers.242,946,1223
Another multisymptom condition, multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS), occurs sporadically in the general
population and is often attributed by patients to exposure to neurotoxic chemicals, including
pesticides.212,1044 The syndrome is associated with diverse symptoms similar to those that affect Gulf War

156  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

veterans—cognitive impairment, sleep abnormalities, digestive difficulties, headache, fatigue, and mood
alterations—symptoms that are exacerbated by low-level exposure to chemicals. This condition has been
assessed in multiple studies of Gulf War veterans, as will be described in a later section of the report.
Patients with MCS report that minimizing their exposure to chemicals is the most useful way to limit the
severity of their symptomatic illness.488 The Committee has discussed suggestions from clinicians and
members of the public that veterans be advised to limit their exposure to pesticides and other chemicals.
Anecdotal reports have suggested that some veterans’ symptoms were triggered or worsened by exposure
to pesticides after they returned from the Gulf War.716 Clinicians have also provided testimony and case
reports indicating that chemical avoidance can be useful in improving veterans’ health.1115,1399 There is
currently no scientific research, however, to indicate whether veterans’ exposure to chemicals since their
return from the Gulf War is associated with chronic ill health, nor whether chemical avoidance provides
symptomatic relief. It is hoped that insights into this question will be provided by a recently-funded study
of a multimodal treatment for Gulf War illness that includes reduction of chemical exposures.1013
Health effects of low-level sarin exposure
The organophosphate compound sarin was developed as a chemical warfare agent by German scientists in
the 1930s. Sarin is highly toxic and when used in warfare at militarily effective doses causes serious
symptoms and death as a result of acute cholinergic toxicity. Relatively little was known about biological
effects of lower-level sarin exposures until recent years, particularly with respect to persistent or delayed
effects of low-level exposures.86 In the past decade research in these areas has expanded as a result of
several factors. These include questions raised about effects of low-level sarin exposure in the Gulf War
following DOD’s 1996 announcement that nerve agents had been released in theater, exposure of a large
number of Japanese citizens to sublethal doses of sarin in terrorist attacks during the 1990s, and increased
concern in the U.S. and elsewhere about use of chemical agents on civilian populations. Recent research
has provided important insights into effects of sublethal exposure to sarin and longer-term effects of low
dose sarin exposure, the issue most relevant to the health of Gulf War veterans.
In the late 1990s, both DOD and VA commissioned reviews of the available scientific literature to
provide information on possible health consequences of nerve agent exposure in the Gulf War. A 2000
report from the RAND National Defense Research Institute detailed the challenges of determining
whether or not Gulf War veterans had developed acute symptoms in connection with low-level chemical
agent exposures in theater.74 The RAND report pointed out that symptoms of low level exposure to nerve
agents are nonspecific and might, at the time of exposure, be attributed by a soldier to a common
headache, gastrointestinal condition, or respiratory problem. It also described research suggesting that
expected symptoms of low-level sarin in theater might have been attenuated by veterans’ use of PB, or as
a result of tolerance that developed with repeat exposures to AChE inhibitors. The RAND report
concluded that there were no indications of serious symptoms suggestive of a large dose chemical agent
exposure in Gulf War personnel. Milder symptoms associated with low dose exposures might have been
overlooked or misinterpreted, however, so could not be ruled out. The report also found that it was not
possible, based on the limited literature available at the time, to rule out the possibility that low level
exposures could produce chronic health effects, and identified research needed to investigate this issue.
In response to a Congressional directive, VA commissioned the Institute of Medicine (IOM) to conduct a
series of research reviews to assist the Secretary in making decisions about veterans’ disability
compensation, as previously described. Volume One of the resulting IOM Gulf War and Health series
was published in 2000 and included a literature review on the effects of sarin. Based on its review, the
IOM committee concluded that “there is sufficient evidence of a causal relationship between exposure to
sarin and a dose-dependent acute cholinergic syndrome that is evident seconds to hours subsequent to
sarin exposure and resolves in days to months”679 an effect that has been well recognized for decades.

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  157

The IOM committee also found that evidence from human studies to determine if subsymptomatic
exposure to sarin led to long term health effects. Based on studies of nonhuman primates and humans
exposed to low levels of other OPs, the committee added that “it is reasonable to hypothesize the
occurrence of long-term adverse health effects from exposure to low levels of sarin.”679
Within several years of the IOM report’s publication, multiple studies emerged that identified effects of
low-level sarin exposure in animal models. As a result, the Secretary of Veterans Affairs asked IOM to
revisit the question of long-term effects of low-dose sarin exposure. In response, IOM published an
“Updated Literature Review of Sarin” in 2004. The conclusions of this second IOM report were
essentially unchanged from those of the first.683 Similar to the prior IOM report, the second panel did not
consider findings from toxicological research in animals or studies evaluating risk factors for
multisymptom illness in Gulf War veterans to determine the strength of evidence relating low-level sarin
exposure to health outcomes. This omission was striking, since the new animal studies had been the
reason the Secretary requested the updated report.1641
Research on the effects of low-level sarin exposure considered for the present report includes studies on
health outcomes in humans, as well as biological effects observed in animal models. Because the
Committee is charged specifically with reviewing research related to the health of Gulf War veterans, this
review focused most specifically on studies that have evaluated longer-term effects of lower-level sarin
exposures. Results from studies that have specifically evaluated health outcomes in Gulf War veterans in
relation to nerve agent exposure is considered in detail in a later section, along with similar research
related to PB and pesticide exposures in the Gulf War.
Animal research on effects of sarin exposure
Repeated exposures to levels of sarin that would not be noticed clinically resulted in delayed
development of brain alterations that could be associated with memory loss and cognitive
dysfunction.
--R. Henderson, “Response of Rats to Low Levels of Sarin”601

A large number of studies have evaluated effects of sarin in different animal models. In reviewing this
literature, several key parameters were important to differentiate in characterizing research findings. In
addition to potential effect differences in different animal species, key study parameters relate to whether
the study evaluated effects of higher doses that caused serious signs of cholinergic toxicity or death in
exposed animals, intermediate doses that caused milder effects in a subset of animals, or effects of lowerdose exposures that caused minimal or no observable signs of toxicity. In addition to dose levels, the
route of exposure (e.g., inhalation, injection, intravenous infusion) and the dosing pattern (e.g., single
doses or repeated dosing, of brief or sustained duration) appeared to make a difference in some cases. An
additional issue of importance related to how long animals were observed after exposure—hours, days,
weeks, or months—to determine the duration of identified effects or the development of delayed effects.
As will be described below, animal studies have included different combinations of these key elements,
evaluating high or medium or low dose exposures given once or multiple times by inhalation or injection,
with outcomes evaluated at time points that range from immediately after exposure to periods more than
one year later.
Acute effects of sarin exposure in animals. Acute effects of high dose sarin exposure in both
humans and animals result from cholinergic toxicity—evidenced by symptoms that include miosis,
salivation, tremors, nausea and vomiting, seizures, coma, and respiratory arrest—which vary in severity
with the level and duration of exposure.51,133,1051 Research in animal models has also demonstrated
additional acute effects of moderate to high dose sarin exposure that include behavioral effects,
autonomic effects, renal and neuroinflammatory effects, and alterations in gene

158  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

expression.145,230,304,307,860,869,895 In addition, animal studies have identified longer term effects in surviving
animals following high dose sarin exposure, including persistent changes in behavior, central
inflammatory processes, cardiac function, and gene expression profiles.42,308,520,652 Sarin exposure at
lower doses often produces limited or no overt effects that are apparent by simple observation. A large
number of animal studies, however, have described both acute and chronic biological effects associated
with low-dose sarin exposure, often in the absence of observable signs or symptoms. Understanding
effects that may develop or persist over an extended time period after low-dose exposures is of greatest
relevance to the health of Gulf War veterans, as will be described below. In addition, many studies have
described short-term effects of low level sarin exposures. In these studies, animals were observed for
only a limited time after exposure, so it is generally unknown how long identified biological effects might
have lasted had animals been observed for longer periods. In addition to alterations in cholinesterase
activity, low-to-moderate doses of sarin have been shown to produce short-term neurological effects that
include neurobehavioral alterations,652,761,1120,1402,1415,1806 spinal cord lesions and swelling,656,659 and
increased expression of genes associated with neuronal degeneration and apoptosis.1383 Several studies
have also described acute immune alterations with low-level sarin exposure.740,762-764
Evaluation of persistent or delayed effects of low-level sarin exposure in animals. As
described in the Committee’s 2004 report, a growing number of animal studies have, since 2000, assessed
biological effects of lower-level sarin exposure, effects that develop or persist over an extended time
period. Results from these studies are summarized in Table 4. As shown, this research includes a wide
variety of study designs and exposure models. It includes studies in both rodent and primate models,
sarin exposure by inhalation or injection at levels that range from extremely low doses to those that cause
limited symptoms in some animals, and follow-up periods that range from 17 days to more than one year
after exposure. Findings are also diverse, and include effects that are detectable immediately after
exposure and persist through the last observation point, effects that are not apparent until some time after
exposure, changes that normalize over time, and effects that vary with time (for example, a biological
measure that is initially increased, but later decreased).
As with other areas of research considered by the Committee, studies related to persistent effects of lowlevel sarin exposure vary with respect to strength of study design, investigators’ conclusions, and
reliability of publication source. Because of limitations related to individual studies and sources, the
Committee again adopted an inclusive approach in reviewing this literature, considering all relevant
studies and drawing on the breadth of results to inform general conclusions, rather than relying on any
single study or source.
Brain and behavioral effects. The largest number of studies have evaluated long-term effects of lowlevel sarin exposure on the brain and behavior. The earliest published study of this type, from 1976,
reported that monkeys exposed to either a single high dose or repeated low doses of sarin developed
electroencephalogram (EEG) abnormalities that persisted at least one year after exposure.195 A 1999
study identified only minimal long term EEG effects following a single, somewhat higher-level exposure
to sarin in marmosets.1183 A more recent study from the Netherlands,1706 like the initial EEG study,
reported long term EEG effects in monkeys who received a sustained, low-dose sarin exposure by
inhalation. In the 2004 study, Dutch investigators reported that EEG readings were an order of magnitude
more sensitive than pupil measures for detecting low-dose sarin exposure and that exposed monkeys
continued to exhibit significant EEG alterations one year after exposure.
Studies listed in Table 4 indicate that central effects of sarin vary with exposure method, dose, and
duration and also may vary between species. Results from several studies also suggest that the persistent
effects of sarin exposure can differ with the pattern of exposure. That is, repeated low dose exposures can
produce effects that differ from those of single exposures, even at similar or higher doses. For example,
Duke investigators reported that after injecting rats once with sarin at doses that ranged from very low to

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  159

Table 4. Studies Evaluating Persistent and/or Delayed Effects
of Low Level Sarin Exposure in Animals

Study
Burchfiel
1976

195

Exposure Model

Key Findings

Monkeys injected with sarin
IV with single, sublethal large
dose or 1 low dose/week for
10 weeks

1 year following exposure, EEG alterations, prominently increased beta activity, persisted
in monkeys exposed both to single, high dose exposure and multiple, low-dose exposures.
Low dose exposure generated biphasic response, with early increase in delta and theta,
which shifted to increase in beta by 1 year post exposure.

Pearce1183 Marmosets given single,
1999
moderate dose injection

No sign. EEG alterations observed over 15 months, ns (p=0.07) increase in beta
amplitude. No sign. cognitive deficits observed.

Jones724
2000

Rats injected IM with single
0.01, 0.1, 0.5, or 1.0 LD50
dose of sarin

90 days post exposure, blood brain barrier permeability sign. decreased, AChE activity
sign. increased, M2 receptors sign. increased in brainstem only after 1.0 LD50 dose. M2
receptors sign. reduced in cortex after 0.5 and 1.0 LD50 dose.

Kassa768
2000

Rats given 1 of 3 levels of
sarin by inhalation for 60 min,
mid level exposure given 1x
or 3x within 1 week

3 months post exposure, DNA replication and synthesis in the liver was sign. decreased
with all single doses, but not with repeat exposure. 6 months post exposure, DNA content
and total protein sign. reduced with all doses. Minimal differences at 12 months post
exposure.

Kassa766
2000

Rats given 1 of 3 levels of
sarin by inhalation for 60 min,
mid level exposure given 1x
or 3x within 1 week

12 months post exposure, sarin repeated dose sign. increased lymphoproliferation, while
single dose at same and lower level sign. reduced it. Repeat dose sign. decreased
macrophage activity, while single dose at same and higher level sign. increased it. No
sign. difference in immune measures 3 months post exposure, limited differences at 6
months.

Kassa767
2001

Rats given 1 of 3 levels of
3 months after exposure, rats that received repeat sarin exposure had sign. locomotor,
sarin by inhalation for 60 min, gait, and behavioral abnormalities, and sign. greater CNS excitability. Behavioral deficits,
mid level exposure given 1x but not enhanced CNS excitability, also with single higher, nonconvulsive dose.
or 3x within 1 week

Kassa758
2001

Rats given 1 of 3 levels of
1 day after exposure, rats with mid and higher level sarin exposure showed sign. deficits in
sarin by inhalation for 60
spatial memory performance on T maze. Differences no longer sign. at one week or 3
minutes, mid level exposure months post exposure. No sign. difference between single and repeat dosing.
given 1x or 3x within 1 week

Kassa759
2001

Rats given 1 of 3 levels of
Single low and mid level doses produced only brief (< 1 day) reduced spatial memory
sarin by inhalation for 60
performance on Y maze. Repeat dosing or single higher dose produced sign. impairment
minutes, mid level exposure for 3 weeks, which normalized at 4-5 weeks.
given 1x or 3x within 1 week

Kassa757
2001

Rats given 1 of 3 levels of
Gait abnormalities, sign. decreases in automated measures of motor activity, and
sarin by inhalation for 60 min, increased CNS excitability 3 months after exposure. Sign. increased exploratory activity
mid level exposure given 1x and hind limb grip strength 6 months after exposure.
or 3x within 1 week

Conn267
2002

Rats exposed to subclinical Low-dose, single or repeated sarin exposure had no acute or delayed effects on body
levels of sarin by inhalation 1 temperature or locomotor activity with or without heat stress.
hour/day for 1,5, or 10 days
with/without heat stress

Henderson601
2002

Rats exposed to subclinical
levels of sarin by inhalation 1
hour/day for 1,5, or 10 days
with/without heat stress

1 day after exposure, M1 cholinergic receptors were unchanged. After 30 days, sarin alone
sign. reduced M1 receptors in olfactory tubercle; sarin+heat stress sign. reduced M1
receptors in frontal cortex, hippocampus, and olfactory nucleus. Sarin+heat stress also
sign. increased M3 receptors in frontal cortex, olfactory tubercle, anterior nucleus, and
striatum 1 day and 30 days post exposure. Sarin sign. increased brain mRNA for IL-1beta,
TNF-alpha, and IL-6. No apoptosis or brain lesions identified on histopathology.

160  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Table 4. (cont.) Studies Evaluating Persistent and/or Delayed Effects
of Low Level Sarin Exposure in Animals

Study

Exposure Model

Key Findings

Scremin
2003

0.5 LD50 sarin dose subQ,
3x/week for 3 weeks in rats

2 weeks post exposure, acoustic startle response was sign. increased and exploratory
behavior decreased, indicating cholinergic hyperactivity. At 16 weeks post exposure,
habituation was sign. decreased. Muscarinic receptor binding was sign. decreased in
multiple brain regions at 2 weeks, sign. increased in cortex at 4 weeks, with no sign.
differences at 16 weeks.

Husain657,658
2003, 2004

10 weeks exercise, with lowdose sarin subQ daily during
weeks 5-6 in mice

4 weeks post exposure, sarin sign. decreased peripheral BChE and AChE, AChE in
striatum, NTE peripherally and in cortex, striatum, and spinal cord, and increased MDA
(indicator of lipid peroxidation) in spinal cord and sciatic nerve.

Kassa765
2004

Rats given low and moderate
doses of sarin by inhalation
for 60 minutes, infected with
tularemia 7 days after
exposure

24 hours after infection, sarin at both levels caused sign. decrease in IgM and IgA
antibodies, sign. increase in lymphoproliferation. Higher dose associated with sign.
more IgM antibodies after 7 days. Both doses sign. decreased lymphoproliferation at
21 days.

1377

Van Helden1706 Monkeys exposed to sarin for During exposure, EEG readings were 10x more sensitive than pupil miosis to low level
2004
5 hours by inhalation at 5
sarin. 1 year after exposure, sarin exposure associated with sign. EEG abnormalities on
subclinical doses
multiple bands, and sign. more alpha frequency bursts than at baseline.
Scremin1378
2005

0.5 LD50 sarin dose subQ,
3x/week for 3 weeks in rats

4 weeks after exposure, sarin exposure associated with sign. increased cerebral blood
flow in multiple areas. Few sign. differences remained at 16 weeks.

Shih1403
2006

0.5 LD50 sarin dose subQ,
3x/week for 3 weeks in rats

Brain acetylcholine levels were sign. increased at 4 weeks post exposure, but not at 16
weeks.

Scremin1379
2006

0.5 LD50 sarin dose subQ,
3x/week for 3 weeks in rats

2 and 4 weeks post exposure, sarin associated with sign. decreased heart rate at
different times over 24 hour period. Low frequency HRV at midnight was sign. reduced
at 2 but not 4 or 16 weeks post exposure.

Genovese480
2007

Monkeys injected IM with
Sarin exposure was not associated with sign. deficits on cognitive performance (serial
single moderate dose of sarin probe recognition tasks) assessed up to 10 weeks post exposure.

Morris1071
2007

Rats injected subQ with 0.05 Low dose sarin produced biphasic autonomic modulation, with sign. increase in HRV
LD50 sarin on 2 consecutive (pulse interval, low and high frequency) 1 week post exposure, followed by a sign.
days
decrease at 10 weeks. Tyrosine hydroxylase mRNA sign. increased in areas of
brainstem 10 weeks post exposure.

PenaRats exposed to low dose
Sarin sign. reduced serum corticosterone and ACTH levels, which persisted through
Philippides1193 sarin by inhalation 1 hour/day last observation (8 weeks corticosteroid, 4 weeks ACTH). 5 day repeat exposure sign.
2007
for 1 or 5 days
reduced antibody forming cell response, which was autonomically mediated, and
normalized 2-4 weeks post exposure.
Dave314
2007

Guinea pigs injected subQ
with 0.1, 0.2, or 0.4 LD50
1x/day for 10 days

Repeat low dose sarin produced sign. increase in DNA fragmentation in neurons and
leukocytes at 0 and 3 days post exposure, but not at 17 days.

Mach945
2008

Mice injected subQ with 0.4
LD50 sarin on 3 consecutive
days , with/without
intermittent stress

3 weeks post exposure, sarin alone produced sign. reduced motor activity on open field
testing, no interaction with stress. Sarin+stress produced delayed behavior alterations
(increased grooming behavior) at 7 weeks post exposure, and sign. increased size and
reduced catecholamine concentrations in adrenal glands.

Abbreviations: IV = intravenous, IM = intramuscular, subQ = subcutaneous, EEG = electroencephalogram, LD50= dose that is lethal to half of
exposed animals, M1 or M2 or M3 = subtypes of acetylcholine muscarinic receptors, CNS = central nervous system, AChE =
acetylcholinesterase, BChE = butyrylcholinesterase, NTE = neurotoxic esterase, MDA malondialdehyde, ACTH = adrenocorticotropic hormone,
min = minutes, sign. = statistically significant

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  161

very high, only rats with the high dose exposure exhibited persistent regional alterations in brain AChE
activity.724 In contrast, several studies have indicated that repeated, low dose sarin exposures over periods
up to two weeks produce persistent regional alterations in central AChE activity.601,657,658
Studies have reported a variety of changes in the brain following repeat, low dose sarin exposure. A 2002
study from Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute reported both persistent and delayed effects on the
brain following repeated inhalation exposures to low dose sarin over periods from one day to two
weeks.601 Some effects were delayed, that is, they were not observed the first day following exposure but
were identified 30 days after exposure. Some effects occurred only with the combination of sarin
exposure and heat stress. Overall, 30 days after repeat low dose sarin exposure, cholinergic M1 receptors
were significantly reduced in several brain regions, including the hippocampus, frontal cortex, and
olfactory areas. With heat stress, M3 receptors were significantly enhanced in striatum, frontal cortex, and
olfactory areas. Increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines were also found in the brain, although no
brain lesions were identified. Research from the Los Angeles VAMC also reported alterations in central
muscarinic receptors after repeated, higher doses of sarin over a longer time period, although specific
receptor subtypes were not distinguished. Overall, muscarinic receptors were significantly decreased in
several brain areas two weeks after exposure, increased in the cortex at four weeks, but no longer differed
significantly from controls at 16 weeks.1377
Multiple studies have reported persistent behavioral effects of low dose sarin exposure, with findings
varying with dosage level, the duration of follow-up, and the type of motor or cognitive function assessed.
Some studies identified no behavioral effects267,480,1183 or only transient effects.758 Several studies have
reported that behavioral alterations were more pronounced with repeat exposures than with single
exposures at the same dosage.759,760,767 One of the earliest reports on sustained behavioral effects
indicated that three repeated, low dose sarin exposures given over one week, but not just one dose,
resulted in significant locomotor, gait, and behavioral abnormalities three months after exposure, and
significantly increased sensitivity to drug-stimulated seizures.767 Additional studies have reported
significant reductions in acoustic startle response, motor activity, grooming behavior, and habituation,
changes that persisted from two to sixteen weeks after repeat doses of sarin.945,1377
In many cases, it is not known how long identified central effects of low dose sarin exposure persist, since
many effects were reported to continue through the final observation point of the study. Other changes
appeared to normalize within the follow-up period of the study, usually over several weeks or months.
These included sarin-related cognitive changes observed in two studies,758,759 alterations in cerebral blood
flow1378 and changes in brain levels of acetylcholine.1403
Autonomic effects of low-dose sarin. Low level sarin exposure has been associated with alterations in
autonomic function in several animal studies. Investigators from Wright State University identified a
biphasic autonomic response following extremely low-dose sarin exposure, given each of two days. One
week after exposure, heart rate variability was significantly elevated in both the low and high frequency
ranges. By 10 weeks, however, heart rate variability was significantly reduced in sarin-exposed
rats.1070,1071 A second study reported that higher-dose sarin, given over a more sustained period, produced
significant alterations in heart rate variability in the low frequency range. These differences were
observed two weeks after exposure, but not at four or 16 weeks after exposure.1379 In addition, immune
suppressive effects of low-dose sarin exposure have been shown to be autonomically mediated, and did
not occur when sarin-exposed animals were pretreated with a ganglionic blocker.740,1193
Neuroendocrine effects of low-dose sarin. An unexpected effect of low-dose sarin has been reported
by two studies from Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute. Investigators found that low-dose sarin
exposure resulted in immune suppression, but that this effect was not the result of elevated levels of
corticosteroid, the adrenal stress hormone. Instead, study findings indicated that low-dose sarin exposure
significantly decreased serum corticosteroid levels.740 A follow-up study indicated that both

162  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

corticosteroid and adrenal corticotropic hormone (ACTH), the pituitary hormone that stimulates
corticosteroid production, were significantly reduced by low-dose sarin, and that this suppression
persisted for as long as animals were observed, four-to-eight weeks.1193 A similar effect was also
associated with other centrally-acting AChE inhibitors.868
Additional neuroendocrine alterations reported in response to low-dose sarin exposure include a persistent
increase in brainstem mRNA for tyrosine hydroxylase, the rate limiting enzyme for synthesis of dopamine
and related neurohormones.1071 Low dose sarin exposure has also been reported to produce significant
adrenal gland enlargement and reduced adrenal catecholamine concentrations, in combination with an
intermittent stress.945
Immune effects of low-dose sarin. Several studies have reported that low-level sarin exposure can
significantly alter the immune response, producing a number of effects that differ over time. Long-term
alterations in lymphoproliferation have been demonstrated in several studies.763,766,767 The first, from
Czech investigators, reported that no sarin-related immune changes were observed three months after
exposure, and very limited differences six months after exposure. Twelve months after exposure,
however, rats who had received repeated, low dose inhalation exposures to sarin had significantly
decreased macrophage activity and significantly increased lymphoproliferation. At the same time, rats
who had received a single dose of sarin, at the same concentration, also had significant changes in both
measures, but in the opposite directions.766 Other studies have identified temporary suppression of
antibody responses following low-dose sarin exposure. Significant reductions in T cell mitogenesis and
antibody forming cells, observed shortly after low dose sarin exposure, were reported to normalize
between two and four weeks after exposure.1193 Czech investigators have also reported a temporary
suppression of antibody response to infection one week after low or moderate dose sarin exposure.765
More recently, a study from Walter Reed Army Institute of Research found that low-level, repeat sarin
exposure produced a significant, but temporary, increase in DNA fragmentation in leukocytes, an effect
observed at three days, but not 17 days after exposure.314
Effects of sublethal and low-level sarin exposure in humans
Interest and research on the effects of chemical nerve agents has historically focused on acute symptoms
and signs, and on lethal effects of acute exposure. It was widely believed, for many years, that there are
no long term effects of sarin following recovery from sublethal exposure, although research on long-term
human health effects of sarin was limited. Experimental studies conducted by government agencies in
chemical warfare programs did not evaluate long term effects, and there were few opportunities for
systematic observational research, since human populations had rarely been exposed to sarin. In the past
25 years, unfortunately, humans have been exposed to chemical weapons, including sarin, in connection
with several situations and incidents. As a result, scientists and clinicians have learned more about
immediate, short term, and long term effects of sublethal exposure to chemical warfare agents on humans.
Prior to more recent exposure events, there was limited information on the potential for lower-level
exposure to chemical agents, including sarin, to produce long term effects. As described in the
Committee’s 2004 report, reports emerged, in the 1950s, of a multisymptom condition affecting a group
of individuals who had worked in the German military’s munitions factories in the 1930s and 1940s,
factories that produced sarin and other chemical agents. A 1963 medical report described a “cerebroorganic delayed effect syndrome” in these workers that was characterized by lowered vitality, defective
autonomic regulation, headache and gastrointestinal symptoms, and cognitive impairment.1467,1491 A case
series report, published in 1969, described symptoms of impaired memory, difficulty concentrating, and
mood alterations, as well as an excess of slow wave activity on electroencephalograms (EEG) in 25
industrial workers in the U.S. who had been exposed to sarin in the 1950s and 1960s.1025

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  163

In 1979, investigators from Harvard Medical School and collaborating institutions reported results of a
study of 77 government workers with histories of accidental exposures to sarin, and 38 healthy
controls.368 Researchers explained that they undertook the study because of reports that a number of
civilian government employees working with or around sarin had complained of a variety of symptoms
that included memory loss, trouble concentrating, and excessive dreaming.194 Forty-one of the workers
evaluated in the 1979 study had been exposed to sarin three or more times within the six years prior to
evaluation, but none of the workers in the study had been exposed in the year prior to the study. Sarinexposed workers had normal erythrocyte AChE activity, but differed significantly from controls on both
waking and sleeping EEG, with most marked increases in higher frequency beta activity. Similar
persistent alterations in beta activity had previously been demonstrated in primates one year after sarin
exposure.195
Both the U.S. and British governments have supported chemical weapons research and development
programs that included use of human subjects.780,1652 A 2003 report described results of a follow-up
survey of 2,478 men who, as military volunteers, had participated in the U.S. program between 1955 and
1975.1164 The DOD-sponsored study compared the health of 855 men who had been exposed to
cholinergic agents (sarin, VX, and eserine), 871 men exposed to other chemical agents (e.g. blister agents,
LSD), and 752 men not exposed to chemical agents. Overall, no differences were reported in rates of
diagnosed diseases and only minimal differences on general health measures. Individuals exposed to
cholinergic agents in the program had a slightly lower overall death rate than men not exposed to
chemical agents. This report is reassuring, providing a general indication that military personnel exposed
to chemical agents were not, overall, affected by excessive long-term health problems many years later.
Important limitations include the lack of information on health outcomes in relation to specific nerve
agents, dosages, or duration of exposure, and the lack of information on the health of individuals whose
program participation was limited due to short term difficulties with chemical exposures.
The British Medical Research Council has commissioned a series of projects to evaluate health outcomes
among the thousands of military personnel who participated in research programs at the British chemical
research facility at Porton Down. An initial report on an evaluation of 289 members of a Porton Down
veterans’ support group was published in 2006. Multiple symptoms, including fatigue, sleep, and mood
difficulties, were reported to have occurred in the first five years after program participation, and
continued to be problematic in the years that followed.40 This preliminary project did not have an
unexposed comparison group of veterans, but did report that SF36 measures of function and healthrelated quality of life were significantly lower in the Porton Down veterans than in comparably aged men
in the general population. These findings do not provide information on whether Porton Down veterans
have excess problems due to their program participation, since veterans in the support group are not likely
representative of all program participants. But the report does provide a preliminary indication that a
selected subgroup of program participants are in worse health than the general population.
Chemical weapons, both nerve and blister agents, were used in the Iran-Iraq War during the 1980s.178,693
Blister agents are said to have been used the most extensively by Iraq. Reports indicate that as many as
100,000 Iranians may have been exposed to sulfur mustard and that tens of thousands still suffer long
term health effects that include respiratory disorders and eye and skin abnormalities.90,484 In 1988, the
Kurdish town of Halabja, near the Iranian border in Northern Iraq, was bombarded with what is believed
to be a mix of chemical agents—mustard gas and nerve agents that included sarin, tabun, and VX.509,1566
The attack lasted several days and had tragic and lasting consequences, reportedly killing 5,000 people
and producing an additional untold number of serious casualties.496 No scientific or systematic reports
have provided information on the extent and types of injury and disease caused by this attack, nor on rates
of medical conditions or persistent symptomatic illness in the years since the attack. Reports from
clinicians and the media have described increased rates of cancers, respiratory conditions, psychiatric
disorders, and birth defects among survivors.496,509,597 Because of the mixed effects of multiple, high

164  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

dosage exposures in these attacks, it is not known whether any long-term effects can be attributed to
effects of OP nerve agents.
Survivors of 1990s terrorist incidents in Japan. The most extensively studied sarin-exposed
populations are Japanese citizens who were exposed to sarin in two terrorist incidents in the 1990s. The
first attack occurred in 1994 when sarin was released in the middle of the night in a residential area of the
city of Matsumoto, Japan. Area residents, rescue workers, and clinical staff exposed to sarin when
victims were brought into hospitals exhibited acute cholinergic symptoms of exposure. In all, 600 people
were poisoned, 58 were hospitalized, and seven died.1068,1092,1133 The following year, a religious cult
released sarin on three different lines in the Tokyo subway system during Monday morning rush hour.
About 5,500 people are reported to have been poisoned, and 12 died.1147,1818,1825
Initial clinical reports focused on exposed individuals who sought evaluation and treatment, most of
whom had acute signs and symptoms of cholinergic toxicity—pupil miosis, headache, nausea and
vomiting, rhinorea, and fatigue.1818 In the years since, a large number of studies have evaluated multiple
health parameters in these populations, with most focused on neurological and psychiatric sequelae of the
exposure events.1825 For many of those exposed, acute symptoms resolved in a matter of weeks. Some
individuals, however, exhibited persistent symptoms when evaluated years after exposure. Three years
after the Matsumoto incident, a substantial number of victims continued to report symptoms that included
eye weakness (24%), fatigue (15%), and headache, at rates significantly higher than controls.1091
Persistent symptoms reported by Tokyo survivors five years after exposure included eye fatigue (39%),
visual abnormalities (21%), general fatigue (16%), muscle stiffness (15%), and headache (10%), as well
as psychological symptoms including flashbacks (13%) and depressed mood (13%).778
Six to eight months after the Tokyo subway attack, exposed individuals who no longer exhibited clinical
signs of poisoning, were shown to have a variety of subtle central nervous system alterations, including
poorer performance on neurobehavioral tests, prolonged auditory and visual evoked potentials, and
postural sway abnormalities.1826-1829 Heart rate variability, assessed six to eight months after exposure,
was significantly correlated with the degree of AChE reduction measured at the time of exposure.1086
Studies conducted in the years that followed the Tokyo attack continued to identify psychomotor and
memory alterations in individuals exposed to sarin, three years 1128 and seven years1054 after exposure.
Some individuals also continued to have symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Studies
indicated that some neurobehavioral measures were significantly associated with PTSD symptoms in
those individuals. Others were significantly associated with sarin exposure, after controlling for effects of
PTSD.1128,1828 Investigators concluded that some survivors exhibited persistent or delayed central nervous
system effects resulting from sarin exposure, in addition to persistent psychological effects resulting from
trauma.1828
Neuroimaging studies have identified persistent brain structure abnormalities in relation to sarin exposure.
Five to six years after the Tokyo attacks, a study of 38 individuals exposed to sarin found them to have
significantly smaller regional grey matter volume in the right insular and temporal cortex, smaller white
matter volume in the temporal stem near the insular cortex, and smaller left hippocampus volume,
compared to matched controls.1816 White matter reductions were significantly correlated both with the
severity of somatic symptoms at the time of the study and with the degree of AChE reduction years
earlier, on the day of sarin exposure. No associations were identified between brain volume and measures
of psychological stress. Study results therefore supported direct links between sarin exposure, persistent
symptoms, and brain structure alterations.1816 A small study had previously reported that nine individuals
with PTSD following sarin exposure in the Tokyo subway showed a significant reduction in grey matter
in the left anterior cingulate cortex.1817
Overall, follow up evaluations of individuals exposed to sarin in Japanese terrorist events indicate that
sarin exposure, at levels sufficient to cause acute symptoms, is associated with persistent symptoms and

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  165

central nervous system effects, in a subset of those exposed. These findings contrast with earlier
assumptions that sublethal exposure to sarin does not lead to long-term health sequelae following
recovery from acute effects of exposure. This research does not indicate whether low-level sarin
exposure that does not produce acute symptoms can lead to persistent central nervous system effects,
however. Studies have not evaluated the health of individuals who were located near areas where sarin
was released in the Japanese events and potentially exposed to lower levels of sarin, but did not exhibit
acute symptoms at the time.1146
Summary. Chronic health effects of low-level sarin exposure. Acute toxic effects of high dose
exposure to the organophosphate nerve agent sarin have been characterized for many years in both
humans and animals. Recent studies have provided important insights into long term effects of lowerdose sarin exposure and indicate that, contrary to earlier assumptions, exposure to sarin at relatively low
doses can result in long-term biological effects. Animal studies have identified multiple central nervous
system effects of low-dose exposure that include persistent EEG abnormalities, cognitive and behavioral
changes, and alterations in regional expression of cholinergic receptors in the brain. Persistent or delayed
autonomic effects have also been described in animal studies, as well as neuroendocrine and immune
effects of low-level sarin exposure. Identified effects of low-dose sarin exposure in animal models have
varied, in some cases, over the duration of follow up, as well as with the dose, route, and pattern of
exposure. Humans exposed to sarin at levels sufficient to cause short-term symptoms have also been
shown to have persistent EEG abnormalities and subtle neurobehavioral decrements years after exposure.
Studies have also identified brain volume differences in several areas, audiovestibular abnormalities, and
elevated rates of symptoms such as vision problems, headache, fatigue, and mood disturbances that
persist for months or years in some individuals after exposure to symptomatic doses of sarin.

Effects of Combinations of Gulf War Neurotoxicant Exposures
It seems prudent to recommend avoidance when possible of untoward levels of simultaneous
exposure to incompletely studied combinations such as PB, permethrin, and DEET while at
the same time realizing that currently available evidence is insufficient to warrant abandoning
current doctrinal guidance concerning the military use of these compounds.
--U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, 2003951

As described throughout this report, military personnel serving in the Gulf War experienced a uniquely
complex mix of exposures in theater. In its 2004 report, the Committee pointed out the potential for the
diverse exposures encountered during the Gulf War, particularly those associated with neurotoxicity, to
have interactive effects that differed from those expected from individual exposures. The report included
a table that described the results of 28 animal studies that assessed effects of combinations of Gulf Warrelated exposures in a variety of models, most of which identified significant effects. More recent studies
have continued to report on effects of combinations of Gulf War exposures, providing more detailed
information on specific combinations and persistent effects. Results indicate that some, but not all
combinations of Gulf War exposures can act synergistically, and that specific effects vary with the
specific chemicals assessed and with the dosage, route, and pattern of exposures.
An extensive number of scientific studies and government-sponsored investigations has provided diverse
types of evidence related to health effects of individual Gulf War exposures. By comparison, information
on health effects of combinations of exposures encountered by military personnel in theater is quite
limited. Synergistic effects of mixtures of anticholinesterase pesticides have been described in the
medical literature for over 50 years.455 But most research on combined effects of the specific chemicals

166  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

associated with Gulf War service has been conducted in recent years, as part of the federal Gulf War
research effort. Nearly all information on combined effects of Gulf War exposures comes from animal
models. Ethical considerations generally prohibit exposing humans to combinations of toxicants for
purposes of understanding their synergistic effects, and observational studies of exposures in human
populations have generally focused on individual chemicals. Very little information on effects of
combinations of exposures has been provided by Gulf War epidemiologic studies, although such analyses
can and should be done. The few Gulf War studies that statistically evaluated interactions between two
selected exposures did not take into account effects of other prominent exposures, and so have provided
little useful information on synergistic effects of multiple exposures.
Available information from Gulf War studies and government reports, however, indicates that combined
effects of exposures in theater are potentially an important concern. Gulf War studies have consistently
indicated that exposures in theater were highly correlated. That is, veterans’ exposures during
deployment were “grouped” in identifiable ways, as opposed to being randomly experienced.241,458,1466
Important examples were identified in the RAND pesticide investigation, which found that Gulf War
personnel who used a large amount of one type of pesticide were also significantly more likely to use
other types of pesticides, and that individuals who used the most pesticides also used the most PB.458
Interactive effects of potentially hazardous chemicals can occur in different ways. Compounds can affect
the degree to which other chemicals are taken into the body or the efficiency with which they are
neutralized and eliminated from the body. Both processes can directly affect the dose of chemical
delivered to target organs, and can also affect the duration of the delivered exposure. Once in the body,
compounds can also interact with one another biologically, altering effects of one another on specific
biochemical processes in the brain or the periphery.
Dermal absorption of combined exposures.
Significantly, systemic exposure to certain chemicals such as pyridostigmine and DFP can
modulate the percutaneous absorption of an unrelated chemical. This scenario is not usually
assumed to be relevant to dermal risk assessment, and further supports the contention that
risk assessment of chemical mixtures cannot be based solely on individual chemical studies.
--J. Riviere, 20031294

Several studies have assessed the degree to which different mixtures of Gulf War exposures alter
absorption of insecticides and repellants, and their dermal effects. Those studies are summarized in Table
5. Findings from these studies demonstrated that skin absorption of repellants, and their penetration
through dermal layers, varies with the type of carrier used in the chemical preparation. Overall, results
indicated that permethrin absorption, alone, was generally minimal and that combined skin exposure to
both DEET and permethrin did not enhance absorption of either compound. Neither was absorption of
DEET or permethrin enhanced by topical exposure to PB or the organophosphate DFP, an exposure used
to simulate nerve agent exposure. Topical exposure to JP-8 fuel did, however, significantly increase
absorption of permethrin.
The major finding from these studies was somewhat unexpected. In contrast to topical applications, PB
in the circulation significantly increased both dermal absorption and skin penetration of permethrin. In
addition, the combination of circulating PB and DFP further enhanced absorption of both permethrin and
DEET, increasing permethrin absorption by nearly six-fold. Pyridostigmine also significantly attenuated
the dermal inflammatory response that normally develops in response to topically applied DEET and PB.
This group of studies therefore indicates that systemic PB increases the absorption and bioavailability of
permethrin. In combination with DFP, PB further enhances absorption of both permethrin and DEET. In
addition, circulating PB inhibits the protective inflammatory response normally stimulated by topical
exposure to either permethrin or DEET.

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  167

Table 5. Effects of Combined Gulf War-related Exposures on Dermal Absorption
and Response to Pesticides and Insect Repellants

Study
Baynes
1997

Exposure Model
110

Key Findings

DEET, permethrin, carbaryl applied to Absorption and penetration of each compound varied with carrier. DEET
rodent skin and perfused porcine skin did not enhance dermal absorption of permethrin or carbaryl.

Baynes111 Permethrin applied to perfused
2002
porcine skin and an in vitro model,
with or without PB, DFP, and DEET.

Intrarterial perfusion of PB and/or DFP sign. enhanced dermal absorption
and deposition of permethrin; DFP+PB yielded a 6-fold increase. Topical
DEET and topical DFP reduced permethrin absorption.

Riviere1295 Permethrin, DEET, and JP-8 jet fuel
2002
applied to perfused porcine skin

JP-8 enhanced permethrin absorption and penetration. DEET did not
affect absorption.

Riviere1294 DEET applied to perfused porcine skin Intrarterial perfusion of PB and DFP sign. enhanced dermal absorption and
2003
and an in vitro model, with or without deposition of DEET. Topical DFP or permethrin had no effect on DEET
PB, DEET, and permethrin
absorption.
Monteiro- Permethrin and DEET applied to
Riviere1064 perfused porcine skin and an in vitro
2003
model, with or without PB and DFP.

Permethrin and DEET produced time-related increases in IL-8,
prostaglandin E2, and TNF alpha. Intrarterial perfusion of PB sign.
suppressed release of IL-8 and prostaglandin. TNF alpha effects differed
with different combinations and vehicles.

Abbreviations: DEET = diethyl-m-toluamide, PB = pyridostigmine bromide, DFP =diisopropyl fluorphosphate, an organophosphate used
as a nerve agent stimulant, sign. = statistically significant

Metabolic interactions of Gulf War-related toxicants. After potentially hazardous chemicals
enter the circulation, their adverse effects can be reduced or eliminated through biological
mechanisms that protect the body from chemical toxins. This involves a cascade of biological
processes that bind and metabolize the chemical, convert it to a form that is less toxic, and excrete it
from the body. Metabolic processes can also convert relatively harmless chemicals that enter the
body into more toxic forms. Toxicant metabolism is therefore an important determinant of the
degree to which chemical exposures produce adverse effects.
Investigators who first identified synergistic effects of combined exposure to PB and pesticides
hypothesized that the increased toxicity observed was due, in part, to competitive alterations in the
capacity for liver and plasma hydrolyzing enzymes to effectively neutralize the chemicals.16,17 Only
limited information was available at that time, however, concerning the specific chemical processes
involved in human detoxification of pesticides and related compounds.1440 Since then, a growing
body of research has provided important insights into how concurrent exposure to multiple chemicals
can alter metabolism of toxic substances.
Human enzymes involved in metabolizing toxic chemicals differ from those of rodents and other
species commonly used in toxicological research.1440,1525 Research sponsored by DOD in recent
years has begun to provide detailed information concerning the complex biochemical processes
involved in the metabolism of Gulf War-related chemicals in models that utilize human liver cell
fractions. Much of this work has been conducted by investigators at North Carolina State University.
Initial studies have characterized details of metabolism of PB, DEET, permethrin, chlorpyrifos, and
other pesticides by multiple cytochrome p450 enzyme isoforms, esterases, and other hydrolyzing
enzymes. Results consistently demonstrate that the effectiveness of liver hydrolysis of chemical
toxicants depends on the specific amounts and types of the different enzymes involved in
metabolizing each compound, which can vary significantly between individuals.305,611,1525

168  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

These studies have also identified diverse types of interactions that result in one chemical inhibiting
the metabolism of another. For example, the first step of permethrin metabolism involves ester
hydrolysis, a process that is inhibited by chlorpyrifos. Incubation of liver microsome or cytosol
fractions with chlorpyrifos prior to addition of permethrin results in dramatic inhibition of
permethrin metabolism.1312 A second type of interaction is illustrated by the observation that both
chlorpyrifos and carbaryl are hydrolyzed by the same cytochrome p450 isoform. Coincubation of
these two compounds in human liver microsomes yields significant inhibition of carbaryl
metabolism, even at low doses.1312
Overall, these studies have most consistently demonstrated that chlorpyrifos can markedly inhibit, in
vitro, metabolism of several other compounds associated with Gulf War service, including
permethrin, DEET and carbaryl. Several other compounds can also modulate metabolism of one
another.245 For example, PB, permethrin, and chlorpyrifos can either stimulate or inhibit DEET
metabolism, in different combinations.611,1701 Investigators from Duke University recently reported
that, using in vitro models, PB and permethrin both inhibited metabolism of one another in plasma.
DEET did not affect metabolism of either PB or permethrin, but both PB and permethrin
significantly inhibited DEET metabolism.22
Overall, research in this area provides evidence that metabolic interactions between combinations of
anticholinesterase compounds and insect repellants can significantly affect the degree to which these
compounds are effectively neutralized by the body. The extent to which such interactions
contributed to adverse effects of Gulf War exposures and the development of Gulf War illness can
not be deduced from studies of this type. But this information provides extremely useful insights
into specific biochemical processes potentially involved in interactions between combinations of
Gulf War exposures. Information from this research can also improve assessments that extrapolate
findings on biological effects of Gulf War exposures from animal studies to humans.
Scientific understanding of the specific biological effects of combinations of chemical exposures on
human health is relatively limited. But as described in the Committee’s 2004 report, a relatively
large number of studies have been conducted in recent years, as part of the federal Gulf War research
effort, to evaluate biological effects of combinations of Gulf War-related exposures in animal
models. These studies have demonstrated diverse effects resulting from combinations of
neurotoxicant exposures, which differ from those of individual chemicals.
Effects of mixtures of PB and Gulf War-related pesticides and repellants. The largest number
of federally-sponsored studies evaluating combined effects of Gulf War-related neurotoxicants have
assessed effects of mixtures of PB, pesticides, and insect repellants on a variety of central nervous
system and behavioral parameters. Findings from these studies are summarized in Table 6. As
shown, the earliest studies of this type were conducted in the middle and late 1990s, and used
exposure protocols that differed in important ways from Gulf War-related exposures. These studies
were important, however, for providing a first look at the potential for synergistic effects of
combinations of Gulf War-related exposures on the central nervous system.
Since 2001, multiple studies have used animal exposure models that provided a closer approximation
to the types and levels of exposures experienced by Gulf War military personnel. Many of those
studies have been conducted by Duke University investigators, and are noteworthy for two important
reasons. First, the exposure models used were specifically developed to parallel exposures during
the Gulf War. For example, permethrin and DEET were administered topically to the skin and PB
was given orally at doses, calibrated by body weight, comparable to those of veterans. Second,
many of the Duke studies evaluated effects that developed after an extended exposure period. Rats
were typically given PB and pesticides in a repeated dosing schedule for 15-30 days,

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  169

Table 6. Animal Studies Evaluating Combined Effects of PB, Pesticides, and Insect
Repellants Used in the Gulf War on the Brain and Behavior

Study

Exposure Model

Key Findings

AbouDonia16
1996

High doses of oral PB, subQ All combinations of 2 compounds produced multiple signs of toxicity (cholinergic
DEET, subQ chlorpyrifos to symptoms, locomotor dysfunction, spinal cord swelling) that sign. exceeded single
hens for 2 months
compounds, especially with PB+chlorpyrifos combination. Three chemicals
combined yielded sign. greater toxicity than 2 chemicals combined.

AbouDonia17
1996

High doses of oral PB, subQ Combinations of 2 compounds produced multiple signs of toxicity (gait
DEET, subQ permethrin to abnormalities, weakness, tremors, decreased locomotor activity) that sign.
hens for 2 months
exceeded single compounds. Combination of all 3 chemicals yielded sign. greater
toxicity, spinal cord abnormalities than 2 chemicals combined.

Bucholz185
1997

Moderate dose of oral PB,
PB sign. decreased the amount of permethrin in the brain.
very low dose of subQ
permethrin to rats for 10 days

Chaney228
1999

High doses of PB and DEET Combination produced seizures and death by mechanisms that differed from single
given once IP to mice
compounds. Effects were not altered by preadministration of anticonvulsant drugs.

Chaney229
2000

High dose DEET and varying 1 hour post exposure, DEET alone had no effect on AChE activity, PB alone did not
doses of PB given once IP to affect brain AChE activity. High dose PB+DEET produced 40% reduction in whole
rats
brain AChE activity.

Hoy649
2000

High dose PB, DEET by
2 hours post exposure, single compounds had minimal effects. Permethrin
gavage, permethrin IP given combined with PB or DEET sign reduced locomotor speed in males but not
once to rats
females. Serum levels of permethrin increased with coadministration of PB.

Hoy650
2000

High dose PB, DEET by
24 hours after last dosing, no effects with single compounds. PB+DEET produced
gavage, permethrin IP given sign. reduced locomotor speed; permethrin + DEET sign. increased speed in male
daily for 7 days to rats
rats only.

Van
Haaren1704
2000

GW-relevant dose of PB by
gavage, high dose of
permethrin IP given for 7
days to rats

Serum permethrin levels sign. greater in rats given PB, sign. greater in female than
male rats. PB alone caused sign. learning deficits that were not affected by
permethrin.

AbouDonia13
2001

GW-relevant doses (also
0.1x, 10x GW doses) of
DEET and permethrin
dermally applied for 60 days
to rats

DEET alone reduced blood brain barrier permeability in brainstem, DEET+
permethrin decreased permeability in cortex. 30-60 days after exposures initiated,
all single compounds produced sign. reductions in sensorimotor performance;
some deficits increased with time and dosage, and were sign. greater with
combined exposures at highest doses.

AbouDonia14
2001

GW-relevant doses of PB by
gavage for 15 days, dermally
applied DEET, permethrin
daily for 45 days to rats

Locomotor performance on different tests was sign. reduced for each compound
alone, with deficits increasing over time. Greatest deficits with PB; no interactive
motor effects between compounds. PB alone produced 40% decline in midbrain
AChE activity. DEET produced sign. increase in brainstem AChE activity, and
permethrin produced sign. increase in cortical AChE activity. PB + DEET and/or
permethrin produced sign. decrease in brainstem AChE.

Abu-Qare20
2001

GW-relevant doses of
permethrin and high dose of
DEET dermally applied once
to rats

Brain mitochondria assessed at multiple time points 0.5 – 72 hours after exposures.
Starting 24 hours after exposure, rats exposed to both DEET and permethrin had
sign. increased release of brain mitochondrial cytochrome c. No effect with single
exposures.

170  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Table 6. (cont.) Animal Studies Evaluating Combined Effects of PB, Pesticides, and Insect
Repellants Used in the Gulf War on the Brain and Behavior

Study

Exposure Model

Key Findings

AbdelRahman5
2001

GW-relevant doses of DEET DEET and permethrin, individually and combined, produced hypertrophy of
and permethrin dermally
astrocytes and sign. increased GFAP expression in hippocampus and cerebellum.
applied for 60 days to rats
All treatments resulted in sign. neuronal cell death in motor cortex, hippocampus,
and dentate gyrus. Neuronal effects were attenuated with combination of DEET
and permethrin.

Van
Haaren1705
2001

Variable doses of PB and
With PB treatment, rats had sign. decreased behavioral responses in doseDEET by gavage, high doses response manner. Only highest exposures to DEET and permethrin sign. reduced
of permethrin IP in rats
behavioral responses. Synergistic responses observed only with low dose PB
combined with low dose DEET or permethrin. Some effects differed in male vs.
female rats.

Vogel1727
2002

Assessment of DFP binding, Outcomes observed 48 hours after dosing. Permethrin produced sign. (25-30%)
in combination with varying increase in DFP binding in the brain. PB reduced DFP binding in plasma, red blood
low dose PB and permethrin, cells, muscle, and brain.
given in feed to mice

AbdelRahman6
2002

GW-relevant doses of PB by
gavage for 15 days, dermally
applied DEET, permethrin
given daily to rats for 28 days
with/without 5 min restraint
stress to rats

All chemicals together, plus stress, produced disruption of blood brain barrier in
cingulate cortex, dentate gyrus, thalamus, and hypothalamus but not in other brain
regions. Neuronal death and increased GFAP were observed in those four brain
regions. Exposures plus stress also sign. reduced AChE activity and m2 receptors
in the forebrain. Minimal effects of combined chemicals alone or stress alone.

AbdelRahman3
2004

GW-relevant doses of PB by
gavage, dermally applied
DEET and permethrin given
daily to rats for 28 days
with/without 5 min restraint
stress

Following up above study, evaluated changes in brain regions in which no
disruption of blood brain barrier occurred. Combination of chemicals and stress
yielded sign. decreased AChE activity in midbrain, brainstem, and cerebellum, and
decreased m2 cholinergic receptor binding in midbrain and cerebellum. Stress plus
chemicals also produced sign. neuronal death and increased GFAP in cerebral
cortex and hippocampus. These changes not seen with stress or combined
chemicals alone.

AbdelRahman4
2004

GW-relevant doses of
dermally applied malthion,
DEET and permethrin given
daily to rats for 30 days

24 hours after last treatment, all behavioral tests (beam walk time and score,
inclined plane, forepaw grip) showed sign. impairment with all single and combined
exposures. DEET combined with either malthion or permethrin produced sign.
increase in plasma BChE activity. Permethrin plus either malthion or DEET
produced sign. reduced midbrain AChE, while DEET and permethrin alone sign.
increased cortical AChE. Treatments also associated with reduced neuron density
in several brain regions.

AbouDonia10
2004

GW-relevant doses of PB by
gavage for 15 days, dermally
applied DEET, permethrin
(also 0.1x,10x GW doses)
given daily for 60 days to rats

24 hours after last treatment, PB alone, DEET+ permethrin produced sign.
locomotor and behavioral deficits (beam walk score and time, incline plane,
forepaw grip). PB alone slightly reduced plasma BChE activity, but PB + DEET or
permethrin sign. increased plasma BChE activity. DEET + permethrin sign.
increased brainstem AChE activity. PB+DEET+permethrin sign. reduced AChE
activity in midbrain. Results similar at different doses.

Abbreviations: DEET = diethyl-m-toluamide, PB = pyridostigmine bromide, DFP =diisopropyl fluorphosphate, an organophosphate used
as a nerve agent simulant, subQ = subcutaneous, IP = intraperitoneal administration, GW = Gulf War, GFAP = glial fibrillary acidic
protein, AChE = acetylcholinesterase, BChE = butyrylcholinesterase, sign. = statistically significant

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  171

and up to 60 days in different studies, an exposure profile that parallels that experienced by many
Gulf War veterans. As a result, these studies have been extremely valuable not only for describing
synergistic effects of multiple exposures, but also for characterizing central nervous system effects of
single exposures, delivered orally and to the skin using a repeated dosing schedule over an extended
period of time. As summarized in Table 6, these studies have produced an extensive number of
detailed findings.
Effects of high dose exposures, evaluated by earlier studies, consistently indicated that different
combinations of PB, DEET, permethrin, and chlorpyrifos yielded significantly greater neurotoxicity
than single exposures. Synergistic neurotoxic effects were reflected by overt clinical signs of ill
health, tissue damage in brain and spinal cord, behavioral changes, and reduced levels of AChE
activity in the brain. These studies also suggested that moderate-to-high exposure to PB can effect
levels of permethrin, increasing it in serum649,1704 and decreasing it in the brain.185 Two studies also
suggested that immediate effects of high-dose exposures differ from effects that develop shortly
thereafter. Male rats exposed to both permethrin and DEET (but neither compound alone) had
significantly reduced locomotor speed after two hours,649 but significantly increased speed after 24
hours.650
Later studies that used more Gulf War-relevant exposure protocols and doses identified diverse
central nervous system effects following both individual and combined exposures. Some of the most
noteworthy findings from these studies were effects observed from individual exposures to PB and
insect repellants, effects not observed in previous studies that used single high dose and/or short term
exposures. Identified changes resulting from a repeated dosing schedule were most pronounced, and
most consistently demonstrated with PB. All four studies that evaluated behavioral measures
following Gulf War-relevant doses of PB given orally to animals in a repeated and extended dosing
pattern identified significant alterations in learning and/or locomotor activity.10,14,1704,1705 Additional
central nervous system effects of exposures to PB, permethrin, and DEET alone were noted in
relation to low-dose, repeated administration, effects not observed in earlier studies that evaluated
effects of higher dose, single dose, and short-term exposures. As summarized in Table 6, these
effects included alterations in blood brain barrier permeability, regional alterations in brain AChE
activity, and behavioral effects.
In addition, studies utilizing Gulf War-relevant protocols have identified diverse interactions
between different mixtures of cholinergic neurotoxicants and insect repellants used in the Gulf War.
It is important to note that different studies have evaluated different exposure combinations and
durations, and that the majority of synergistic effects reported have been identified by only one or
two studies, usually from the same team of investigators. These studies are generally consistent in
showing that combined exposures can produce synergistic effects. However, many of the specific
effects identified can only be considered preliminary, pending additional investigation. It is also
important to note that relatively few three-way interactions were identified in these studies. That is,
few synergistic effects resulting from combinations of three compounds were identified that differed
from those observed with only two of the compounds.
As detailed in Table 6, a variety of synergistic effects have been reported in relation to combined
exposure to PB and DEET in rat models, which differ from those observed with PB or DEET
individually. These are generally similar to effects reported with combined exposure to PB and
permethrin, and include significantly decreased AChE activity in brainstem,14 increased plasma
levels of BChE,10 and behavioral deficits at low-dose exposures that were not observed with higher
doses.1705 Synergistic effects resulting from combined exposure to DEET and permethrin in rat
models include reduced permeability of the blood brain barrier in the cortex,13 reduced AChE
activity in the midbrain,4 increased AChE activity in brainstem,10 and increased production of brain
mitochondrial cytochrome c.20 The combination of DEET and permethrin was also reported to

172  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

attenuate the degree of neuronal cell death observed in the hippocampus and cerebellum following
exposure to either DEET or permethrin alone.5
Two studies have reported significant interactive effects between exposure to three chemicals
together—PB, DEET, and permethrin—and a mild stressor. This combination produced significant
increases in blood brain barrier permeability in four regions—the cingulate cortex, the dentate gyrus,
the thalamus, and the hypothalamus.3,6 Investigators also reported glial fibrillary acidic protein
(GFAP) staining in those regions, an indicator of astrocytic response to underlying neural injury.
This response was consistent with reported indicators of neuronal cell death in those regions, as well
as in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus.3 None of these changes was observed with exposure to
the three chemicals without the stressor, or with the stressor alone.
Findings indicative of neuronal cell death in these studies have been challenged by a suggestion that
the dark neurons described as indicating cell death in exposed animals may be an experimental
artifact that can be produced by a number of experimental conditions.726 The Committee was not in
a position to determine the validity of this concern, but notes that the neurons in question were
observed only in some subgroups of exposed animals and not in unexposed animals, and were
accompanied by other indicators of neurotoxicity, such as astrocyte hypertrophy and increased
GFAP levels.3,5,6
In addition to the published animal studies summarized in Table 6, a DOD report on a project
conducted by the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory indicates that combined exposure to low doses
of PB, DEET, JP-4 jet fuel, and stress produced significant neurobehavioral deficits and increased
levels of serotonin in multiple brain areas, increases that were sustained at least 88 days after
exposure.948
A limited number of animal studies have also evaluated combined effects of pesticides and PB on
outcomes not directly related to neurological function and behavior. Increased urinary excretion of
markers of oxidative stress and DNA damage have been reported in rats after combined low dose
exposure to PB, DEET, and permethrin.18,19 Apoptosis in testicular germ cells and spermatocytes
have also been reported in rats following low dose, combined exposure to PB, DEET, and
permethrin, an effect that were significantly enhanced by a moderate stressor.15 A series of animal
studies sponsored by the British Ministry of Defence generally found no interactive effects between
PB and receipt of multiple vaccines given to British troops in the Gulf War, as detailed in the earlier
discussion of vaccines. Combined exposure to DEET, PB, and JP-8 jet fuel in a mouse model
produced only limited effects on the immune response.1187 Higher level exposures to combinations
of PB, permethrin, and DEET have been shown to significantly increase the lethality of each
compound.986,1076 Caffeine and adrenergic drugs have also been shown to potentiate the lethality of
PB.227
Preliminary insights concerning the potential for biological interactions between Gulf War-related
pesticides have also been provided by cell culture studies. Combinations of lindane, malthion, and,
permethrin have been reported to act synergistically to increase markers of oxidative stress, stimulate
increased levels of antioxidant enzymes, and produce necrotic and apoptotic cell death in
thymocytes.1151,1152 And, using a novel in vitro screen for neurotoxicity, significant interactive
effects have also been demonstrated when chlorpyriphos was combined with pyrethrum or with a
solvent commonly used in pesticide formulations.77
Just one human study has specifically evaluated effects of combined exposure to DEET, permethrin, and
PB. Investigators from the U.S. Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences conducted a
placebo-controlled crossover trial to assess effects of short term, low level exposure to PB, DEET,
permethrin, and stress in 64 healthy, mostly military, volunteers.1322,1323 During one and a half days in a

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  173

clinical research unit, subjects wearing untreated or permethrin-treated uniforms took a total of four 30
mg. PB tablets, or placebo, at eight hour intervals. They also applied a measured amount of 32 percent
DEET cream, or placebo, three times to their neck, face, and legs, with gloved hands, at 12 hour intervals.
Following the last use of DEET and PB, subjects were given a one hour rest session or a one hour stress
session that involved marching on a treadmill with a weighted backpack. During the treadmill session,
subjects watched a video depicting battle scenes from popular movies, and also performed mental
arithmetic stress tests. The trial identified few differences between treatment and placebo groups on
measures of neurobehavioral function, physical performance, or blood hormone levels.
The study was useful in showing that brief use of these products, at levels similar to or below those
directed by current military policy, does not produce acute, observable adverse effects in military
personnel. It provides only limited information directly relevant to the Gulf War scenario, however, in
light of the types of DEET, permethrin, and stress applications evaluated in comparison to what is known
about types and patterns of pesticide and repellant use during the Gulf War.
Interactive effects of PB with sarin. As previously described, the 1990-1991 Gulf War was the
first time the military had used PB on a wide scale as a preventive measure in the event of nerve gas
exposure. Since the war, questions have been raised about the potential for PB to have interacted
with low-level sarin exposure to produce long-term adverse effects. Multiple studies have
specifically assessed combined effects of exposure to PB and sarin, as summarized in Table 7. As
shown, these studies have utilized a variety of designs and dosing methods to evaluate the potential
for mixtures of PB and sarin to produce short and long-term effects.
Most of the studies listed in Table 7 identified significant effects resulting from exposure to sarin or PB,
individually. These included effects on the brain and behavior, on autonomic function, and on peripheral
metabolizing enzymes and muscle function. In addition, a number of interactive effects were reported
that exceeded effects of PB and sarin individually. These include acute and long-term EEG
alterations,1706 increased levels of cholinergic M2 receptors in the cortex and brain stem,11 increased
startle threshold and locomotor activity,1377 time-limited increases in regional cerebral blood flow1378 and
autonomic alterations in heart rate variability,1379 and alterations in brain levels of acetylcholine.1403 No
studies identified interactive effects between PB and sarin on AChE levels in the brain.
It is important to note that many of the significant PB/sarin interactive effects identified in these studies
were initially observed days or weeks after dosing ended. Studies also identified a number of effects that
changed over time. Some alterations were most pronounced two or four weeks after exposure, with
values similar to unexposed controls at later time points. Findings therefore provide some answers to
questions concerning potential interactions between sarin and PB, but raise others. Most importantly, it is
unknown whether time-related effects identified by some studies persisted or changed further at time
points beyond those included in the study. Longer-term effects appear to be plausible, in light of longterm effects described following exposure to sarin alone, as well as results of some of the sarin/PB studies
listed in Table 7.
For example, the 2003 study from researchers at the Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical
Defense and the Los Angeles VA identified delayed behavioral changes that potentially reflect a
hypercholinergic state, after exposure to sarin and PB. These changes were first observed 16 weeks
after exposure, the latest time point evaluated, so it is not known if they were sustained for a longer
time.1377 A separate study, using a similar dosing protocol, evaluated choline and acetylcholine
levels following exposure to PB and sarin. Exposure to AChE inhibitors, in general, leads to an
acute increase in acetylcholine. In the Army study, rats exposed to sarin had significantly elevated
cerebral acetylcholine levels four weeks after exposure.1403 In comparison, rats exposed to both sarin
and PB had significantly reduced levels of acetylcholine between 2 and 4 weeks after exposure.

174  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Table 7. Animal Studies Evaluating Combined Effects of Sarin and Pyridostigmine Bromide

Study

Exposure Model

Key Findings

Central and behavioral effects
Abou-Donia11 GW-relevant oral dose of PB At 7 and 15 days post exposure, sarin and PB individually produced sign.
2002
for 15 days, and single low-to- sensorimotor deficits. Sarin+PB together produced sign. sensorimotor deficits that
high sarin dose IM on day15 worsened with time, sign. increase in m2 cholinergic receptor binding.
in rats
Scremin1377
2003

PB given in drinking water,
0.5 LD50 sarin dose subQ,
3x/week for 3 weeks in rats

Effects varied over time. Interactive effects of PB+sarin first observed at 16 weeks
post exposure (sign. increased nociceptive threshold, increased startle threshold,
increased locomotor activity, increased habituation). Sarin alone produced
increased startle response and down regulated muscarinic receptors in several
brain regions 2 weeks post exposure. No effects on brain AChE levels.

Van Helden1706 PB given subQ to marmosets, PB+sarin treated animals exhibited EEG abnormalities at lower sarin doses than
2004
prior to varying doses of sarin animals exposed to sarin alone. One year after exposure, PB+sarin exposure
(5 hours in air)
associated with sign. more EEG alpha frequency bursts than sarin alone.
Scremin1378
2005

PB given in drinking water,
0.5 LD50 sarin dose subQ,
3x/week for 3 weeks in rats

Effects varied over time. At 2 weeks post exposure, PB+sarin produced sign.
increased cerebral blood flow in several areas. Similar patterns with sarin only at 4
weeks. Few differences remained at 16 weeks.

Scremin1379
2006

PB given in drinking water,
0.5 LD50 sarin dose subQ,
3x/week for 3 weeks in rats

2 weeks post exposure, heart rate sign. reduced in single and combined exposed
animals. Sarin+PB produced sign. decrease in low frequency HRV at midnight and
early morning, and sign increase in total power. Minimal HRV differences at 4 and
16 weeks. No differences in locomotor measures between groups.

Shih1403
2006

PB given in drinking water,
0.5 LD50 sarin dose subQ,
3x/week for 3 weeks in rats

Sign. regional differences in brain levels of choline and acetylcholine at 2, 4, and 16
weeks post treatment. Overall, acetylcholine levels were sign. lower with sarin+PB
than with sarin alone at 2 and 4 weeks, but not at 16 weeks.

Peripheral effects
Abu-Qare19
2001

Single moderately high oral
dose of PB and moderately
high sarin dose IM in rats

48 hours after exposure, rats who received PB+sarin excreted sign. elevated levels
of 2 markers of oxidative stress in urine. No oxidative stress markers with either
PB or sarin alone.

Husain657,658
2003, 2004

10 weeks exercise, with GWrelevant doses of oral PB and
low-dose sarin subQ at weeks
5-6 in mice

Four weeks after exposure, exercise+sarin and exercise+PB yielded sign.
decreased respiratory exchange, plasma BChE, peripheral and central AChE
activity, and increased plasma CK activity. Little indication of 2-way interaction of
PB+sarin or 3-way interaction of exercise+PB+sarin.

Dabisch303
2006

GW-relevant doses of PB
Pupil miotic response to PB decreased over the treatment period, indicating
injected in rats IM 2x/day for 8 increased tolerance to PB. PB pretreatment did not affect initial pupil response to
days, followed by sarin
sarin, but shortened pupil recovery time.
inhalation

Abbreviations: GW = Gulf War, PB = pyridostigmine bromide, IM = intramuscular, AChE = acetylcholinesterase, BChE = butyrylcholinesterase,
EEG = electroencephalogram, HRV = heart rate variability, LD50 = dose that is lethal to half of exposed animals, sign. = statistically significant

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  175

At 16 weeks, brain acetylcholine levels had “rebounded” in rats exposed to both compounds, and
were nonsignificantly higher than levels in rats exposed to sarin alone. These findings are unique,
and suggest an unexpected course for time-related changes in brain acetylcholine levels following
combined exposure to PB and sarin. It is unknown, however, if brain acetylcholine levels continued
to increase in rats exposed to both sarin and PB after 16 weeks.
It is also not known the extent to which alterations in brain chemistry sustained over a limited period
of time, such as the 2-16 week time frame in most of the PB/sarin studies, can lead to other,
downstream biological effects that have not been assessed in studies focused on immediate
outcomes. In the real-world situation of the Gulf War, neurochemical alterations sustained over a
period of days or weeks might potentially have been the first in a cascade of additional effects
triggered by the initial exposures. Alternatively, changes that occur within a limited time frame
might alter the impact of other exposures encountered during that time frame, exposures that might
not normally have produced adverse effects. Therefore, although a number of synergistic effects
have been described following repeat, low-level exposure to sarin and PB, the long-term implications
of those effects remain to be more fully elucidated.
Summary. Health effects of combinations of Gulf War exposures. Gulf War veterans were
exposed to unique mixtures of neurotoxicants during deployment, and possible health effects resulting
from those mixtures are an important concern. Studies indicate that veterans exposed to one type of
neurotoxicant, for example, PB or a certain class of pesticide, were usually exposed to others. Little
information on health effects of combined exposures is available from studies of Gulf War veterans or
other human populations. Animal studies have demonstrated that combinations of Gulf War-related
exposures can interact at different stages of exposure, and that some combinations produce effects that
differ from those of individual exposures. Studies have indicated, for example, that pyridostigmine in the
circulation significantly increases absorption of permethrin through the skin, but topically applied DEET
does not. Recent research has also described mechanisms through which toxicants inhibit metabolism of
other toxicants in liver cells and consistently indicate that the organophosphate pesticide chlorpyrifos
significantly inhibits the breakdown of other compounds, including permethrin and DEET.
The largest number of studies has evaluated combined effects of PB, DEET, and permethrin on the brain
and behavior. Early studies reported that high doses of mixtures of these chemicals produced
significantly greater neurotoxicity than each compound individually. More recently, studies have
assessed effects of combinations of these exposures using dosing levels and patterns comparable to those
experienced by veterans in the Gulf War. These studies have identified multiple effects of single
chemicals using low-dose, repeated exposures, effects not identified in earlier studies using higher dose
exposures. Significant effects from mixtures of two or more exposures have also been identified, effects
that did not occur with individual exposures. These include significant neurobehavioral changes, and
regional alterations in the blood brain barrier and brain AChE activity, which varied with different
chemical combinations. A limited number of neurochemical, autonomic, and behavioral effects have also
been identified in relation to combined exposures to PB and sarin.
Overall, these studies consistently indicate that combinations of Gulf War-related neurotoxicants can
produce effects that differ from those of individual exposures. Important questions remain, however,
concerning the contribution of these effects to Gulf War illness. Existing studies provide little
information on the degree to which interactive effects persist for an extended period of time after
exposure. There is also little information on central effects of OP pesticides or the organochlorine
lindane, in combination with other Gulf War neurotoxicants. In addition, Gulf War epidemiologic studies
have not systematically evaluated combinations of self-reported and/or modeled exposures in theater in
relation to Gulf War illness and other health outcomes.

176  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Research on the Health of Gulf War Veterans in Relation to Cholinergic and Related
Neurotoxicants
DG was a Staff Sergeant with the 1165th Military Police Company. He recalled being
awakened at 3:30 a.m. The Battalion NBC NCO was announcing that they were under
chemical attack. An M-256 kit registered a positive reading for a chemical agent. They went
to MOPP level 4 for four hours. Afterward, all of them had runny noses. When asked if people
were made sick from the attack, DG responded that most people were already sick from the
pyridostigmine bromide pills. He said that they had been taking them for two or three days
before the attack and that ‘a lot of people got sick and three or four had to be medevaced out.’
DG currently suffers from headaches, fatigue, joint and muscle pain, an inability to
concentrate, recurring rashes, irritability, night sweats, insomnia, diarrhea, gastrointestinal
problems, dizziness, blackouts, excessive photosensitivity, sore gums, swollen lymph nodes,
and a spot on his brain.
--1994 Senate Committee report on Gulf War veteran1688

A substantial proportion of U.S. military personnel who served in the Gulf War, including most ground
troops, were exposed to one or more of the neurotoxicants described in this section, in different doses and
combinations. Toxicological research in animal models indicates that compounds of this type can have
persistent effects on the brain, and on behavioral, autonomic, and neuroendocrine parameters, effects that
are generally compatible with types of biological alterations observed in Gulf War veterans. Studies in
human populations have identified elevated rates of persistent symptomatic illness and subtle neurological
alterations in relation to subsymptomatic exposure to pesticides and in relation to symptomatic, but
sublethal, exposure to sarin. These research findings are extremely useful but, as previously described, do
not precisely reflect characteristics of Gulf War exposures and Gulf War illness. Studies in the general
population and in animals provide an indication that exposures of this type could have contributed to Gulf
War illness. But given the complexity of the Gulf War exposure scenario and the unusual nature of Gulf
War illness, it is important to evaluate studies of Gulf War veterans to determine what available evidence
most clearly indicates did cause Gulf War illness.
Research findings on the effects of neurotoxicant exposures on the health of Gulf War veterans differ
from those of all other exposures evaluated by Gulf War research studies. Epidemiologic studies have
consistently identified two Gulf War-related exposures—PB and pesticides—to be significantly
associated with Gulf War illness, after adjusting for effects of other exposures in theater. Clinical studies
have also identified objective measures that distinguish Gulf War veterans exposed to PB, pesticides, and
nerve agents, from veterans who were not exposed. Neurotoxicant-related effects have been identified on
neuroimaging scans, neurobehavioral assessments, and neuroendocrine measures. Pyridostigmine and
pesticides are also the only Gulf War-related exposures that previous government reviews and reports
have suggested may be associated with Gulf War illness.504,1632 Overall, the many different types and
sources of evidence evaluated by the Committee—information on exposure patterns, toxicological and
human population research, and studies of Gulf War veterans—most strongly and consistently implicate
PB and pesticides as causal factors in Gulf War illness.
Results from Gulf War epidemiologic studies that evaluated independent associations of PB, pesticides,
and variables related to chemical agents with symptomatic illness in Gulf War veterans are summarized in
Table 8. Studies listed are those that controlled for confounding effects of multiple exposures in theater
since, as described, failure to account for these effects can introduce serious error into study findings.
The overall consistency of findings related to PB and pesticides is particularly noteworthy given the
diversity of methods used to assess both exposures and symptomatic illness in different Gulf War veteran
populations. Results related to the association of symptomatic illness with chemical agents, as shown,
are mixed. Detailed findings from all assessments of associations of symptomatic illness in Gulf War

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  177

veterans with PB, pesticides, and variables related to chemical agents are provided in Appendix A.
Results from these studies are summarized below.
The health of Gulf War veterans in relation to pyridostigmine bromide (PB). Studies of Gulf
War veterans have assessed veterans’ use of PB during deployment in different ways. Most simply posed
a yes/no question, asking veterans whether they took the small white pills, variously described as “anti
nerve gas pills” or “NAPPs” in the U.S. and “NAPs” in the U.K. Some asked veterans to report how
many pills they took, or how many days they took the pills. Several studies also asked veterans if they
had experienced side effects from PB pills when they took them during the war.
SH, assigned to the 145th Transportation Company, also reported getting very sick from the
nerve agent pre-treatment pills. He reported severe nausea and diarrhea that did not abate
until he stopped taking the pills after two days. He recalled thinking that ‘if I’m going to feel
like this I might as well be dead.’
-- 1994 Senate Committee report on Army Gulf War veteran1688

Acute side effects from PB during the Gulf War. Surveys of military personnel during the Gulf War
indicated they experienced higher-than-expected rates of side effects from taking PB. Medical officers
for the XVIII Corps reported that about half of the soldiers in their units had side effects.781
Gastrointestinal effects were most common, but headaches were more problematic than had been
expected. A small survey of Army personnel, mostly aviators, conducted just before their return from
theater indicated that 37 percent of those who took PB had “problems” with it.207 Few details are
provided from these surveys, but both suggest higher rates of side effects from taking PB during the Gulf
War than is typically reported for healthy individuals evaluated in research studies.271,272,1323 An even
higher proportion of Israeli soldiers (75%) who took PB during the Gulf War were reported to have side
effects.1396 The types of symptoms reported by these soldiers were also reported to differ from those most
commonly seen in clinical settings, with Gulf War military personnel reporting higher rates of central
nervous system complaints (headaches, cognitive difficulties) than typically affect healthy subjects in
clinical studies.460
Gulf War veterans in the U.S. and the U.K. who reported they had acute side effects from PB during the
war have also been shown to have significantly higher rates of symptomatic illness, six to 10 years after
the war.241,564 These findings are of particular interest, because both studies found an association of PB
side effects with Gulf War illness, after controlling for effects of other exposures during the war. A third
study, of Ohio reservists who served in the Gulf War, reported a significant correlation between adverse
reactions to “medications” during the war and poorer overall health status since the war.1373
Association of PB with multisymptom illness in Gulf War veterans. Like most other exposures
evaluated in Gulf War epidemiologic studies, PB use was reported to be significantly associated with Gulf
War-related multisymptom illness in nearly all studies, when results were not adjusted for effects of other
exposures during the war, as detailed in Appendix A-9. But unlike most other exposures, the use of PB
in theater was also consistently associated with Gulf War illness in studies that conducted more credible
analyses, adjusting for possible confounding effects of other exposures. As shown in Table 8, PB use
and/or PB side effects were significantly associated with Gulf War-related symptomatic illness in all six
of the six studies that evaluated this association, while controlling for effects of other exposures.
Dose-response effects, that is, a graded association between the amount of PB taken and greater risk of
illness or more severe illness, have also been identified by multiple studies. Two U.S. studies have
reported that taking less than 22 PB pills during the war was associated with a modestly increased risk for
Gulf War illness, but that 22 or more PB pills was associated with a significantly increased risk for Gulf
War illness, after controlling for effects of other exposures.1466,1804 This is the equivalent of taking PB, at

178  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Table 8. Associations of Pyridostigmine Bromide, Pesticides, and Chemical Agents
with Multisymptom Illness in Gulf War Veterans
Association of Neurotoxicant
Exposure with Symptomatic Illness
(adjusted for effects of other exposures)

Study

Gulf War
Symptomatic Illness
Veterans Studied
Evaluated

Haley564
1997

249 GWV Navy
Seabees

Haley syndromes

Ishoy695
Suadicani1507
1999

686 Danish GWV

Gastrointestinal and/or
neuropsych symptoms

Nisenbaum1124
2000

1,002 Air Force
GWV

Chronic multisymptom
illness 464

Cherry241
2001

7,971 U.K. GWV

Overall symptom
severity

Spencer1466
2001

PB

PB side effects “dose response”
effect.; DEET dose response effect

+

+

+

ns

+

+

+

+2

+

PB dose response effect
Pesticide dose response effect

1,119 GWV from
Gulf War unexplained
Washington,
illness (study defined)
Oregon

+

ns

PB dose response effect; DEET was
only pesticide evaluated in model

Gray527
2002

3,831 GWV Navy Gulf War illness
Seabees
(study defined)

+

+

Wolfe1804
2002

945 U.S. Army
GWV

+

Chronic multisymptom
illness464

+1

Pesticides, Chemical
Repellants Agents Additional Information

+
ns

PB dose response effect
no association with “pesticide odor”

Abbreviations: PB = pyridostigmine bromide, GWV = Gulf War veterans
Notes: blank cell = association not assessed in multivariable model, + = statistically significant association, ns = association not statistically
significant, 1 = association with PB side effects only, 2 = association with PB use and PB side effects

recommended doses, for more than seven days. Other studies have reported that veterans who took PB
during the war are at greater risk for more severe multisymptom illness,1124 and that veterans who took
PB for longer periods of time have more severe symptomatic illness than those who took PB for shorter
periods.241 Dose response effects for PB in relation to chronic ill health and multisymptom illness have
also been reported by three studies that did not control for confounding effects of other
exposures.788,789,938,1371-1373 Overall, the highly consistent association of PB with multisymptom illness in
epidemiologic studies analyzed to minimize effects of confounding, as well as identified dose response
effects of PB, provide compelling evidence that supports PB as a causal factor for Gulf War
multisymptom illness.
Association of PB with other health outcomes in Gulf War veterans. In addition to PB’s association
with Gulf War multisymptom illness, a number of studies have identified significant associations between
PB use and measured clinical outcomes in Gulf War veterans. Veterans who used PB during the war
have been reported to have significant decrements on neurobehavioral measures, compared to veterans
who did not use PB.1512 Studies have also identified significant neuroendocrine alterations in relation to
veteran-reported PB use. Specifically, veterans who took PB during the war exhibited significantly
greater cortisol suppression with dexamethasone (DEX) challenge, and significantly reduced 24-hour
levels of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), compared to veterans who did not take PB. Neither
measure was associated with PTSD or with combat stress during the war.502,503 Additional studies have
indicated that PB use was not associated with handgrip strength,738 but may be associated with more
subtle alterations in peripheral nerve function.241,1186

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  179

The Committee has reviewed results from two additional federally funded projects that have not yet been
published, but also suggest an association between PB and clinical measures. One study, conducted by
Midwest Research Institute, found that use of PB is associated with a dramatic, 40-fold increased risk for
Gulf War illness among veterans with butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) genotypes associated with very low
BChE activity.1353 Preliminary findings from a second study, conducted by researchers at Boston
University, indicate that use of high levels of PB during the war, in combination with higher-level
pesticide exposure, is associated with significantly greater risk both for symptomatic illness and for
measured neurobehavioral decrements.836
The health of Gulf War veterans in relation to pesticides. As previously described, a large
number of pesticides and insect repellants were used by military personnel during the Gulf War, including
personal pesticides used by the general military population, and area-use pesticides sprayed by pesticide
applicators. Unfortunately, most Gulf War epidemiologic studies evaluated veteran-reported pesticide
use only in very general terms, for example, by simply asking veterans if they had been exposed to
“pesticides” during the war. A very limited number of studies asked how much pesticide was used, the
number of days pesticides were used, or the specific types of pesticides to which veterans were exposed.
One study indicated that the use of DEET and permethrin were highly correlated, and that the majority of
personnel used either both repellants or neither.1466
Association of pesticides with multisymptom illness in Gulf War veterans. As detailed in Appendix
A-7, nearly all Gulf War epidemiologic studies identified significant associations between pesticide
exposure and symptomatic illness, in analyses that did not control for effects of confounding by other
exposures in theater. Several associations identified by these analyses were quite pronounced, however,
including a finding that British veterans who reported personal pesticide use had a 12 times greater risk of
multiple chemical sensitivity than veterans who reported no use of personal pesticides.1264
Studies also consistently found that pesticide exposure was significantly associated with Gulf War
symptomatic illness, after controlling for effects of other exposures in theater. As shown in Table 8,
pesticide exposure was identified as a significant risk factor for Gulf War illness in five of the six studies
that adjusted for effects of other exposures. The single study in which this association was not significant
had evaluated only effects of DEET in multivariable modeling, although initial analyses indicated that use
of insecticide spray was more strongly associated with Gulf War illness than DEET.1466 Overall, the
general consistency of results demonstrating an association of pesticides with Gulf War illness is
especially noteworthy, give the variability in how pesticide use was assessed by different studies.
Only two epidemiologic studies evaluated dose-response effects in relation to pesticide use during the
Gulf War. Both identified significant correlations between greater pesticide use and greater illness risk or
severity. The University of Texas Southwestern study of Navy Seabees found that using larger amounts
of government-issued DEET repellant, but not OFF or Skin-so-Soft, was significantly correlated with
greater illness risk, adjusting for effects of other exposures. In addition, the large University of
Manchester study of British Gulf War veterans reported a significant correlation between severity of
symptomatic illness and the number of days that veterans reported using insect repellants or handling
pesticides.241
Association of pesticides with other health outcomes in Gulf War veterans. Several studies have
reported that pesticide use during the Gulf War is associated with measured clinical outcomes. This
includes one published finding that veterans who reported using pesticides during the war had
significantly poorer performance on neurobehavioral tasks, compared to veterans who did not.1782 Use of
pesticides in theater was also reported, in one study, to be significantly associated with lower 24-hour
ACTH levels.503 Preliminary results from an additional federal research project, which are not yet
published, suggest that both symptomatic illness and reduced neurobehavioral performance are

180  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

significantly more pronounced among individuals with the highest levels of both pesticide exposure and
PB use during the war.836
The health of Gulf War veterans in relation to chemical agents. A large number of studies
have evaluated associations between variables related to possible nerve agent exposure and the health of
Gulf War veterans. Results of these studies are much less consistent and interpretable than findings
related to PB and pesticides. Difficulties in determining who was exposed to low level nerve agents
during deployment introduce major ambiguities into this research. Although information related to all
self reported exposures during the war is subject to inaccuracies, self-reported exposure to low-levels of
nerve agents is particularly problematic. Veterans might not have known if they had been exposed to
subsymptomatic levels of sarin in any case, but repeated chemical alarms and alerts, disregarding and
turning off alarms, and information and misinformation conveyed through the ranks further undermined
their ability to know whether or not they had been exposed. Studies indicate that chemical agent
exposures are among the least reliably-reported exposures in Gulf War research.1165 Modeled exposures
related to the Khamisiyah demolitions are also subject to question, as previously detailed, and additional
questions remain concerning chemical agent exposures in other locations.
Did Gulf War veterans have symptoms of chemical agent exposure in theater? It has generally
been believed that few if any Gulf War veterans exhibited symptoms of exposure to chemical weapons
during the war,1232 but there is little systematically-collected data that addresses this question. The 2000
RAND report on possible health effects of chemical agents in the Gulf War pointed out that nonspecific
symptoms of low-level exposure to nerve agents might have gone unnoticed or been attributed to other
causes.74 Department of Defense Case Narrative reports often indicate that few, if any, individuals
interviewed in relation to suspected chemical events had symptoms of exposure at the time of the
incident.1617,1628,1630 Other suspected chemical incidents came to light specifically because of reports that
individuals had experienced symptoms suggesting exposure.1558,1589,1614,1627,1688 A recent survey of 335
U.S. Gulf War veterans indicated that 25 percent of veterans who said they had been exposed to chemical
agents during the war based their belief on symptoms they had experienced at the time of the suspected
incident.168
The only study of Gulf War veterans who were in the immediate vicinity of the Khamisiyah demolitions
found that some did have symptoms of nerve agent exposure at the time. Investigators from VA’s
Portland Environmental Hazards Research Center surveyed nearly 3,000 Gulf War veterans who had been
in different areas during the first two weeks after the cease fire, when the major Khamisiyah demolitions
had taken place. Veterans were asked about symptoms they experienced during that period, as well as
symptoms they had at the time of the survey, nine years after the war.990 Overall, symptoms reported by
veterans who were within a 50 km. radius of Khamisiyah during early March of 1991 were similar to
those of veterans in other areas of theater. However, veterans who had directly participated in the
Khamisiyah demolitions, or had witnessed the demolitions, reported significantly higher rates of a
number of symptoms during that period, primarily symptoms suggestive of nerve agent exposure—
headaches, nausea, vision problems, cramping, runny nose, and muscle twitching.990 Results suggest that
some veterans in close proximity to the Khamisiyah demolitions may have had cholinergic symptoms at
the time of exposure.
Association of chemical agents with multisymptom illness in Gulf War veterans. In epidemiologic
evaluations of health effects potentially resulting from chemical agents during the Gulf War, exposure has
been assessed using a variety of self report measures, or using modeled estimates related to the
Khamisiyah demolitions. Results of these studies are detailed in Appendix A-2. As has been described in
relation to other Gulf war exposures, nearly every variable potentially indicative of chemical agent
exposure—such as receiving notification from DOD about the Khamisiyah releases, wearing a gas mask,
hearing chemical alarms, belief that chemical and biological weapons were used—has been shown to be
significantly associated with symptomatic illness in analyses that made no adjustments for effects of other

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  181

exposures. Although subject to confounding, results from several of these studies are worth noting. The
large U.S. National Study of Gulf War veterans indicated that veteran-reported exposure to “nerve gas”
was associated with a 15-fold increased risk of the unique “Gulf War illness” symptom complex
identified by that study.752 In addition, the Portland study reported that individuals within 50 km. of the
Khamisiyah demolitions, overall, had symptom profiles similar to those of veterans in other areas of
theater.989 In contrast, veterans who had assisted with or observed the demolitions had significantly
higher symptom rates, nine years after the war, than other veterans who had been within 50 km. of the
demolitions.
Results from epidemiologic studies that controlled for effects of other exposures in theater are less
consistent and less clear. As shown in Table 8, of the five studies that evaluated associations between
symptomatic illness and chemical agent variables, three identified significant associations, after adjusting
for effects of other exposures. Each of these studies relied on different self-reported indicators of
chemical agent exposure; none used exposure estimates from the Khamisiyah models. Individual results
from the studies listed in the table also raise questions concerning the degree to which they do or do not
support an association between Gulf War illness and chemical exposures. For example, of the two studies
that found no association between chemical agents and symptomatic illness, one evaluated Danish
veterans, who served only in peacekeeping missions and might not have been exposed to chemical agents
at any time.695,1507 Studies that identified positive associations also raise questions. The positive finding
from the large Air Force study, for example, reflects an association between chronic multisymptom illness
and veterans’ perceptions that “chemical or biological weapons were being used,” but not specifically
with whether a veteran had reason to believe that he or she had personally been exposed to chemical
weapons.1124
Overall, an association between Gulf War illness and exposure to chemical warfare agents in theater is
not clearly supported nor clearly refuted by results of Gulf War epidemiologic studies. This is due to the
inconsistency of study findings, overall, and to ambiguities in variables used to evaluate chemical agent
exposures.
Association of chemical agents with other health outcomes in Gulf War veterans. In addition to
the many studies of Gulf War-related multisymptom illness, studies have assessed other health outcomes
in relation to chemical agent exposures during the Gulf War. In contrast to studies evaluating Gulf War
illness, most other health outcomes have been assessed in relation to modeled chemical agent exposures
associated with the Khamisiyah demolitions.
Department of Veterans Affairs investigators in Washington, D.C. used the 2000 Khamisiyah models to
assess mortality rates in Gulf War veterans relative to nerve agent exposure. In 2005, they reported that
modeled exposure to nerve agents was associated with a significantly increased rate of death due to brain
cancer.190 The rate of brain cancer mortality among veterans downwind from the Khamisiyah demolitions
was about twice as high, overall, as the rate in veterans who had been located elsewhere. This reflected
25 brain cancer deaths prior to the year 2001 among the 100,487 Gulf War veterans identified as
potentially exposed to nerve agents. A dose response effect was also identified, indicating that exposure
for two or more days was associated with a greater than three-fold increased risk of death due to brain
cancer. No other mortality effects, related to either disease or motor vehicle accidents, have been
reported in relation to nerve agent exposure at Khamisiyah.190,470
Studies have also reported measurable difference in neurobehavioral performance and brain structure in
relation to low-level nerve agent exposures following the Khamisiyah demolitions. Investigators from
VA’s Boston Environmental Hazards Center assessed neurocognitive performance in veterans in the Fort
Devens cohort between 1994 and 1996, and initially found that veterans who reported being exposed to
chemical or biological warfare agents had significant decrements on a number of specific cognitive
tasks.910 Years later, testing results were reevaluated to assess measured outcomes in relation to DOD-

182  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

modeled exposures to sarin and cyclosarin following demolitions at Khamisiyah. Since testing had
occurred before the Khamisiyah exposures had been made public, the available data allowed assessment
of cognitive performance that was effectively blinded to exposure status. In tests conducted four to five
years after exposure, modeled levels of nerve agent exposure were significantly associated with reduced
performance on neurobehavioral tasks related to visuospatial and psychomotor abilities, in a dose
response manner.1237
Twenty-six individuals in the Fort Devens cohort also received magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans
of the brain between 1999 and 2001. Volumetric measures were evaluated in relation to DOD modeled
exposure levels to sarin and cyclosarin in connection with Khamisiyah. No differences were identified by
simple comparisons between “exposed” and “unexposed” individuals, that is, comparisons between all
veterans identified as being potentially exposed at any level, and those who were not in areas affected by
Khamisiyah. In contrast, dose-response analyses identified significant associations between levels of
nerve agent exposure and structural differences in several brain areas. Specifically, veterans with the
highest level of nerve agent exposures had significantly reduced white matter volume, and enlarged right
and left ventricular volumes, controlling for both age and PTSD symptomatology.599 These effects
suggest subtle, persistent alterations in brain structure associated with low level exposure to nerve agents
during the Gulf War. Identified differences related to the degree of exposure estimated by the
Khamisiyah models, but were obscured in comparisons between all unexposed individuals and all those
identified as exposed at any level.
Additional studies have reported on rates of medical diagnoses, healthcare utilization, and hospitalization
in relation to the Khamisiyah demolitions. A 2002 survey indicated that Gulf War veterans located within
50 km. of the Khamisiyah demolitions reported similar rates of medical diagnoses and hospitalizations as
veterans in other locations of theater.989 In a later survey, U.S. Gulf War veterans who had been notified
that they may have been exposed to nerve agents in relation to Khamisiyah reported generally similar
rates of symptoms, medical conditions, and healthcare visits as veterans located elsewhere. Exposed
veterans reported significantly higher rates of recurrent headaches, but significantly lower rates of
diagnosed cancer and neuralgia.1165 Findings suggest that veterans identified by the Khamisiyah plume
models, overall, are generally similar to other Gulf War veterans in relation to most self-reported
diagnoses and symptoms. They also indicate that veterans’ belief that they may have been exposed to
nerve agents was not associated with a tendency to “over report” health problems or increased healthcare
utilization.1165
Studies conducted by the U.S. Naval Health Research Center evaluated hospitalizations in military
hospitals in relation to nerve agent exposures, estimated using both the 1997 and 2000 Khamisiyah
models. Overall, military hospitalizations from 1991 through 1995 were generally similar in “exposed”
and “not exposed” active duty personnel veterans identified by the 1997 plume models.529 Later analyses
compared military hospitalizations between 1991 and 2000 in relation to exposures estimated using the
2000 plume models.1433 All-cause hospitalization rates were similar in exposed and unexposed veterans.
Of the 15 disease-specific categories evaluated, hospitalization for diseases of the circulatory system was
slightly (RR=1.07) but significantly elevated in exposed personnel. Within that category, a significantly
greater proportion of Khamisiyah-exposed veterans had been hospitalized for cardiac dysrythmias
(RR=1.22), but no other specific conditions.1433 No information was provided on hospitalizations relative
to different nerve agent exposure levels estimated by the 2000 Khamisiyah models.
In general, studies that have used modeled estimates of nerve agent exposures in the Gulf War have
provided more interpretable information than epidemiologic studies that relied on veterans’ reports of
chemical alerts or their beliefs concerning chemical exposures. When all veterans identified as “exposed”
in relation to Khamisiyah are considered as a single group, only two significant differences have been
identified using “hard” endpoints—a significant increase in brain cancer mortality, and an excess of
hospitalization for cardiac dysrythmia. Overall, self-reported symptoms, self-reported medical diagnoses,

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  183

and healthcare utilization are similar among veterans identified as “exposed” and “not exposed” using the
Khamisiyah models.
Differences related to possible nerve agent exposure were more consistently identified when levels of
exposure estimated by the Khamisiyah models were considered, rather than combining all potentially
“exposed” veterans into a single group. Identified health outcomes associated with greater and/or more
sustained nerve agent exposure include higher rates of brain cancer mortality, differences in brain
structure volume, and decrements in performance on neurobehavioral tasks. It is important to emphasize
that these studies did not specifically identify excess rates of Gulf War multisymptom illness in relation to
the Khamisiyah exposures, and none provided results that were adjusted for effects of other exposures
during deployment. Epidemiologic studies that identified increased rates of symptomatic illness in
relation to Khamisiyah also did not consider effects of other exposures.142,990,1476 Therefore, despite
important findings related to neurological effects of modeled nerve agent exposures, there is still no clear
information that indicates whether Gulf War multisymptom illness is associated with nerve agent
exposures related to the Khamisiyah weapons demolitions.
Although the accuracy of the Khamisiyah models has been questioned, it is unlikely that the exposure
effects observed in studies of Gulf War veterans were anomalies introduced by shortcomings in the
models. All identified effects related to modeled levels of nerve agent exposures resulting from
Khamisiyah were related to brain pathology, and all occurred in a dose-response pattern. Inaccuracies in
the Khamisiyah models are unlikely to differ with respect to the health outcomes assessed. Such
“nondifferential” exposure misclassifications due to model inaccuracies would therefore be expected to
diminish the apparent associations between nerve agents and the neurological outcomes reported. This
raises the possibility that the actual effects of exposures in the Khamisiyah area could be more
pronounced than those suggested by reported study results.
Results of these studies underscore the importance of evaluating effects of dosage and duration in
assessing effects of Gulf War exposures, where possible, and evaluating health outcomes in identifiable
subgroups of Gulf War veterans. Comparisons between all veterans identified as potentially “exposed” to
nerve agents in relation to Khamisiyah obscured effects identifiable when different exposure levels were
considered. Similarly, studies indicate that higher-dose or more sustained exposures to PB and pesticides
were more strongly associated with Gulf War illness than lower-dose or brief exposures. In a broader
sense, these studies provide an important example of the potential for overly generalized comparisons, for
example, between all deployed Gulf War veterans and nondeployed veterans, to obscure findings related
to specific veteran subgroups.
Summary. Research on health effects of cholinergic and related neurotoxicant
exposures in Gulf War veterans. A large proportion of Gulf War veterans were exposed to different
combinations of cholinergic and related neurotoxicants during deployment, compounds that include PB
pills, pesticides, and low levels of nerve agents. Research in human populations and in animal models
has shown that low level exposure to cholinesterase inhibitors can be associated with persistent
symptomatic illness and with brain and autonomic alterations that parallel the types of problems affecting
Gulf War veterans. Of the many diverse types of exposures evaluated by epidemiologic studies of Gulf
War veterans, only two—PB and pesticides—are consistently identified as significant risk factors for Gulf
War illness. Gulf War studies have also reported significant dose-response effects for both PB and
pesticides in relation to Gulf War illness. In addition, clinical studies of Gulf War veterans have
identified persistent alterations in neurobehavioral and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal measures related to
PB and pesticide exposure during the Gulf War.
Findings related to the effects of low-level nerve agent exposures in the Gulf War have been less clear
and consistent. Epidemiologic studies that have evaluated nerve agent exposure in relation to Gulf War
illness have yielded mixed results. Modeled nerve agent exposures resulting from the Khamisiyah

184  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

weapons demolitions have, however, been associated with increased rates of brain cancer mortality, and
with significant differences in brain structure and cognitive function in Gulf War veterans, all in doseresponse patterns.
Taken together, consistent evidence from studies of Gulf War veterans, along with supporting evidence
from research in other human populations and in animals, provide strong support for both PB and
pesticides as causal factors in Gulf War illness. Questions about the extent of exposure to chemical
agents in the Gulf War, and mixed findings from epidemiologic studies do not allow clear conclusions
concerning nerve agents as risk factors for Gulf War illness. However, indications that low level nerve
agent exposures have had adverse neurological effects in Gulf War veterans and additional evidence from
research in humans and animals exposed to sarin, indicate that low-level nerve agent exposure cannot be
ruled out as a contributing factor in Gulf War illness, for the subset of veterans who were exposed.

Cholinergic and Related Neurotoxicants: Pyridostigmine, Pesticides, and Nerve Agents  185

Recommendations
During the 1990-1991 Gulf War, military personnel were widely exposed to a variety of neurotoxic
compounds that included pyridostigmine bromide pills, different types and dosages of pesticides and
insect repellants, and low-level exposure to nerve agents. The chemical action of many of these
compounds is similar, involving dysregulation of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Animal studies have
also found that these neurotoxicants, in combination with one another, can have effects that differ from
those of individual exposures.
Epidemiologic studies that have assessed independent effects of multiple exposures during the Gulf War
have consistently identified only two as significant risk factors for Gulf War illness—pyridostigmine
bromide and pesticides. Evidence relating low-level nerve agent exposure to Gulf War illness has been
inconsistent, but studies have identified adverse neurological effects in Gulf War veterans potentially
exposed to low levels of nerve agents as a result of the Khamisiyah weapons demolitions.
The Committee gives high priority to studies that further characterize specific effects of Gulf War-related
neurotoxicant exposures, and recommends the following research:


Studies that evaluate and characterize delayed and persistent molecular, cellular, systemic, and
behavioral effects of individual and combined exposures to pyridostigmine bromide, pesticides,
insect repellants, and low-level sarin



Studies that identify markers indicative of past exposure to Gulf War-related neurotoxic
compounds that can be applied to Gulf War veterans. This might include studies that utilize
technologies capable of detecting toxins or secondary metabolites retained for many years
following exposure, studies that identify persistent or “downstream” changes in biochemical
processes in relation to past neurotoxic exposures, and studies that identify delayed or persistent
changes in the central nervous system and autonomic function associated with exposure to Gulf
War-related neurotoxicants.

186  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Infectious Diseases in Gulf War Veterans
The Gulf War theater was home to insects and other pests that carried diseases that posed a potential
health threat to American troops. In earlier times, high rates of infectious diseases such as sandfly fever
and malaria had affected large numbers of military personnel stationed in the Middle East. A variety of
organisms, some endemic to the region, can produce persistent conditions with symptoms that can, in
some cases, resemble the symptoms of Gulf War illness—fatigue, cognitive difficulties, persistent
diarrhea, muscle and joint pain, and unusual skin rashes. In addition to naturally acquired infections,
there has also been concern that Gulf War veterans might have been exposed to biological warfare agents
in theater. Information available before and since the Gulf War indicated that Iraq had developed
biological weapons, and had readied them for use prior to the war.
Throughout Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm, protective measures were fielded to minimize
problems resulting from infectious diseases in theater. Vaccines were given to prevent some diseases and
ample amounts of repellants and pesticides were supplied to ward off biting insects. Surveillance efforts
and an advanced diagnostic laboratory were established to identify and contain infectious disease
problems that emerged during deployment. As a result of these measures, some infections that had posed
serious problems in earlier military deployments had little impact on Gulf War personnel. Other familiar
infectious diseases were problematic in theater, primarily short-lived diarrheal and respiratory conditions.
However, two comparatively novel infections—viscerotropic leishmaniasis and mycoplasma
fermentans—have emerged as issues of concern in relation to Gulf War service. It is important to
determine whether these or other infectious conditions may have contributed to the chronic health
problems affecting Gulf War veterans.
Infectious Disease in the Gulf War
As military operations geared up for the massive deployment of troops to Southwest Asia in 1990, there
was concern among military medical officials about the potential health threat posed by infectious
diseases endemic to the region. Historically, infectious diseases had caused widespread problems among
troops deployed to the region.596,666,1249 Medical officials were aware of the potential for diverse types of
vector-borne infections such as sandfly fever and leishmaniasis.475,664 Diarrheal diseases due to viral
agents, shigella, E. coli, and other agents were also thought to pose a threat,475 a concern born out in the
early months of troop deployment.
Several published reports have documented rates of infectious diseases detected in Gulf War personnel
during the war. It is one of the few areas for which surveillance data were collected during deployment.
A surveillance system was established in theater to monitor injury and disease rates, including infectious
diseases, in the nearly 40,000 Marine Corps personnel stationed in northeastern Saudi Arabia. Data were
collected from most Marine and Seabee unit aid stations and analyzed on an ongoing basis throughout the
deployment period.1607 In the early months of Operation Desert Shield, the U.S. Navy established a stateof-the-art laboratory facility, the Navy Forward Laboratory, headquartered in Al Jubayl, Saudi Arabia.
The work of this laboratory was to identify infections in clinical samples and to assist in detection of
biological warfare agents.661,1607 In addition, health surveys were administered to nearly 900 Marines in
three front-line units prior to deployment and immediately after their return to the U.S. five months later.
Blood samples were also collected pre- and post-deployment to identify rates of seroconversion resulting
from a variety of pathogens in theater.1280
Previous summary reports from the RAND Corporation and the Institute of Medicine have evaluated, in
some detail, the likelihood that Gulf War veterans developed chronic health problems as a result of
infectious diseases acquired in theater. These reports focused most specifically on infectious organisms

Infectious Diseases in Gulf War Veterans  187

endemic to the region and/or those that have the potential to cause chronic illness.608,687 These included Q
fever, hepatitis, malaria, brucellosis, West Nile virus, malaria, shigellosis, and leishmaniasis, among
others. Both reports generally concluded that there is little persuasive evidence indicating that a large
number of Gulf War veterans have suffered long-term adverse effects due to infectious diseases. The
IOM report did identify a number of chronic conditions for which scientific evidence supports an
association with infectious agents. However, the conditions identified have not been associated with Gulf
War service. The RAND report called for further characterization of mycoplasma infection in Gulf War
veterans and did not rule out the possibility that an as yet undetected chronic infection may underlie the
illness of some symptomatic veterans.
Gastrointestinal infections in theater. The most common infectious conditions affecting troops
during deployment were diarrheal diseases. In the early months of Operation Desert Shield, when large
numbers of troops were just arriving in theater, multiple diarrheal disease outbreaks were reported. These
early outbreaks appeared to be largely related to consumption of fresh produce purchased from countries
in the region, since the incidence of diarrheal diseases fell dramatically when those foods were banned.664
Surveys conducted during this period indicated that nearly 60 percent of ground troops had experienced at
least one episode of diarrhea. Twenty percent reported that one or more diarrheal episodes had been
severe enough to interfere with their work and had required them to seek medical attention.662,665 In
addition, nearly half of over 700 surveyed shipboard personnel reported having at least one diarrheal
episode during Operation Desert Shield.1167 Laboratory tests from all branches indicated that the major
causes of diarrheal diseases in theater were enterotoxigenic E. coli and shigella sonnei.662
Although the rate of diarrheal diseases dropped after local produce was removed from troops’ diets,
gastrointestinal infections resulting from a variety of pathogens continued to affect personnel throughout
the deployment period.662 Late in 1990, gastroenteritis outbreaks due to Norwalk virus infection were
identified in units throughout theater.665 Spread of these infections was thought to relate to crowded
living quarters during some phases of deployment and with rugged living and sanitary accommodations in
units deployed in the desert. However, parasitic diseases were reported to be uncommon, with only nine
cases of giardia lamblia identified among 422 Marines tested, and no cases of amebiasis or other
intestinal parasitic infections.960
Respiratory infections during deployment. Acute upper respiratory infections were also
commonly reported during the war. Results of an in-theater survey of over 2,500 ground troops stationed
in northeastern Saudi Arabia between November 1990 and January 1991 indicated that over forty percent
had experienced respiratory symptoms.1279 Smokers and those with a history of respiratory disease were
at highest risk for developing upper respiratory conditions. Respiratory conditions were also more
common among troops housed in air-conditioned buildings than those living in tents. Surveillance of
Marine Corps troops indicated that respiratory conditions continued to affect troops throughout the
deployment period, particularly during periods of initial deployment and at other times when troops were
most crowded together.664
A self limited respiratory condition associated with persistent cough was commonly reported by troops
early in their deployment. This condition was given various names, including the “Kuwaiti cough” and
the “Kuwaiti crud.” It continues to be reported among personnel serving in the region today, and is
thought to be a reaction to high levels of particulates associated with the fine, blowing sand in the
region.1349
One of the earliest mentions of an unusual Gulf War-related illness described an upper respiratory
condition that affected troops who occupied long-abandoned housing units near the village of Al Eskan,
Saudi Arabia.832 The condition, termed Al Eskan disease, was initially described as a pneumonitis that
resulted from exposure to the fine sand, in combination with infectious agents, pigeon droppings, and
other possible contaminants. Most of the initial cases were described as self-limited, resolving with

188  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

antibiotic treatment. This condition is considered further in relation to particulates, discussed later in the
report.
Sandfly fever. Sandfly fever was a particular concern for military medical planners for personnel
deploying to the region. This disease is caused by an arbovirus transmitted by sand flies, and had been a
serious problem for military troops in the region during World War II.596,1149,1249 Acute symptoms of
sandfly fever can include headache, fever, malaise, nausea, pain in limbs and back, and leucopenia.687
Acute infection can be followed by persistent symptoms of fatigue, weakness, and depression.395,475,687
About 80 percent of a group of captured Iraqi soldiers tested for sandfly fever were found to be
positive.1592,1593 But no cases of sandfly fever were identified among U.S. personnel during the 19901991 Gulf War deployment.664 In addition, serological testing of the nearly 900 Marines in front-line
units after their return home did not identify a single positive case.1280
Leishmaniasis. Leishmaniae are intracellular trypanosome protozoa transmitted by the bite of the
same sand flies that carry sandfly fever. There are different presentations of leishmaniasis that result
from infection by different leishmania species. Cutaneous leishmaniasis is very common in the region,
typically the result of infection by L. tropica or L. major. Only twenty cases of cutaneous leishmaniasis
were identified among U.S. troops who served in the Gulf War, however, all resulting from L. major
infection.666,838,953,1142
Systemic infection by leishmania, visceral leishmaniasis, is usually the result of infection by L. infantum
or L. donovani. Symptoms of this condition, referred to locally as kala-azar, typically include fever,
diarrhea, weakness, and hepatosplenomegaly.1142 No cases of kala-azar were identified in U.S. troops
during the Gulf War.953 However, diagnosis of leishmaniasis is difficult since there are no validated
blood tests for this infection. Definitive diagnosis requires that the parasite be cultured from lymph node
or bone marrow biopsies, an invasive process that involves highly specialized laboratory techniques.1142
A form of visceral leishmaniasis that had not previously been recognized in the region was identified in
12 Gulf War veterans after their return from theater, as will be described in detail below. This condition,
referred to as viscerotropic leishmaniasis, was associated with infection by L. tropica. The total number
of Gulf War veterans affected by this atypical leishmaniasis is not known. Some infectious disease
specialists have speculated that it is unlikely that there were large numbers of undetected cases666 because
sandfly fever, an infection transmitted by the same vector as leishmaniasis, was not identified in Gulf War
personnel during the war. In addition, reports from entomological surveys of the Gulf War theater
indicated that relatively few sand flies were in open desert areas where many troops were located.275
Other infections in theater. Another infectious disease of potential concern was brucellosis, which is
endemic to the region30,346 and transmitted primarily through contact with infected animals or ingestion of
contaminated dairy products or meat. Chronic brucellosis has been described in the medical literature for
over sixty years,414 and is characterized by persistent and/or delayed onset of symptoms that resemble
those of Gulf War illness—fatigue, cognitive difficulties, muscle and joint pain, and respiratory
symptoms. Several reports have indicated that no cases of brucellosis were reported during deployment,
but the extent to which veterans were tested for this infection in theater is not clear from available
reports.660,1278
There were seven reported cases of malaria in Desert Storm troops,664,666 three cases of Q fever identified
in theater664 and one case of Q fever identified in a Gulf War veteran shortly after his return.432 Seventyfive Gulf War personnel were hospitalized for chicken pox during deployment.1431 Only a few cases of
viral hepatitis were identified by clinicians in theater,664 and 16 cases were identified among specimens
submitted to the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology.1460 Just one case of West Nile virus infection was
detected in theater,664,1278 although an analysis of samples taken from 865 Marines found that 30 had

Infectious Diseases in Gulf War Veterans  189

positive antibody titers to this virus, in both pre- and post- deployment sera.1280 One death due to an
infectious disease, meningococcal meningitis, was reported during the Gulf War.1813
All told, the impact of infectious diseases during the Gulf War was much less extensive than had been
expected based on previous U.S. and U.K. deployments to the region.664 Various preventive measures
taken by the military can be credited for this success, including vaccinations for infections endemic to the
region, extensive spraying and personal use of pesticides, repellants and other protective measures, rapid
identification and response to identified infectious agents, and broad efforts to provide clean water and
food to troops in theater.666
Infectious diseases in current military operations. Infectious diseases have been more
problematic for troops serving in the region for Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) and Operation Enduring
Freedom (OEF).67,687 Respiratory and diarrheal conditions during deployment were reported by about 70
percent of surveyed OIF personnel.1344,1345 Over 60 percent reported diarrheal episodes severe enough to
seek medical treatment.1345
Cutaneous leishmaniasis has also been more frequently identified in OIF personnel. As of 2005, over
1000 cases had been verified, most due to L. major.399,687,954 A survey of troops reporting diagnosed
conditions suggests that the actual number of cutaneous leishmaniasis cases may be more than twice that
number.1344 Five cases of visceral leishmaniasis have also been verified.67 Additional concerns have
been raised in relation to acinetobacter infections in veterans injured in theater, principally in association
with wound contamination.67,1833
Early in Operation Iraqi Freedom, 19 cases of a serious idiopathic eosinophilic pneumonia were reported.
Affected patients required intubation and mechanical ventilation, and two individuals died from the
disease.222,802,1405,1833 No causative infectious agent has ever been determined. In addition, about 2.5
percent of personnel who have served in OIF and OEF have been reported to have acquired tuberculosis
(TB) infections during deployment, although no active disease cases have been identified.687,802 Over fifty
cases of malaria had also been diagnosed among personnel serving in Afghanistan, as of 2005.67,802
Chronic Symptoms and Syndromes Associated with Infectious Disease
Most familiar infectious diseases produce an identifiable acute illness that is self-limited, and resolves in a
matter of days or weeks. Some infections, however, can be associated with subclinical disease that is not
readily apparent or clearly identified.430,953 In addition, some infectious conditions may not resolve in the
usual time span, instead leading to a post-infectious chronic illness associated with persistent symptoms,
or a chronic infection with symptoms that come and go as the infection vacillates between latent and
active states.209,796,875,1144,1777 Other organisms produce illness that does not become evident for months, or
even years, after the initial infection.83,475,725 A number of organisms found in the Middle East can
produce subclinical and/or persistent infections of these types, including leishmaniasis, Q fever, and
brucellosis.44,430,432,475,725,955,1563
Symptoms associated with chronic infection or post-infectious conditions can be similar to those of Gulf
War illness—fatigue, muscle and joint pain, impaired cognition, gastrointestinal problems, and skin
rashes. Such problems have been well described in studies of symptoms and syndromes that develop
after diverse types of infections, including respiratory infection, central nervous system infection, and
gastrointestinal infection.150,201,209,348,796,1144,1718,1776 Postinfectious symptoms of fatigue, pain, malaise, and
diarrhea are associated with increased production of central and peripheral proinflammatory cytokines in
both animals and humans.784,953,1777

190  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Evaluation of Infectious Diseases in Gulf War Veterans Since the War
Despite the potential for infection in theater by a variety of unfamiliar organisms and the many
epidemiologic studies of Gulf War veterans, surprisingly few studies have evaluated infectious diseases
among Gulf War veterans since their return from the war. With the exception of one study of Air Force
veterans conducted by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 464 most attention to
infectious disease in Gulf War veterans has focused on two very different types of organisms associated
with intracellular infection: leishmania protozoa and mycoplasma, a single celled bacteria-like organism.
Leishmania infection in Gulf War veterans. As previously described, 12 cases of viscerotropic
leishmaniasis due to L. tropica infection were verified in Gulf War veterans after their return to the U.S.
Cases were identified by infectious disease specialists at Walter Reed using rigorous methods.955,956 None
of the affected individuals had symptoms of cutaneous leishmaniasis, the more common manifestation of
L. tropica infection. Affected veterans presented with diverse, nonspecific symptoms including fatigue,
abdominal pain, cough, headache, swollen lymph nodes, and hepatosplenomegaly. Some had fever, some
did not; one patient was completely asymptomatic.953,955,956 Estimated incubation times for the earliest
identified infections ranged from 1 to 14 months, but one case was not verified until two years after
deployment.956 About half of the cases were evaluated for leishmania infection because of veterans’
presenting symptoms, others were identified when serologic surveys were conducted in their units. Five
of the initial eight cases described in a published study occurred in just two units.955
The number of undetected cases of viscerotropic leishmaniasis in Gulf War veterans is unknown, as is the
potential for persistent undetected infection to have contributed to Gulf War illness. As summarized in
Table 1, only limited assessment of leishmania infection has been carried out since veterans returned from
theater. No systematic studies, using well-validated testing methods, have assessed the prevalence of
leishmania infection in Gulf War veterans. This is likely due, in part, to the lack of well-validated
screening blood tests for this infection. Identification and verification of L. tropica infection requires
bone marrow aspirates or lymph node biopsies and rigorous laboratory methods.220,954,1142 The 12
identified cases were characterized as a result of referral to infectious disease specialists at Walter Reed
Army Medical Center and active screening of their units. Systematic evaluation of a larger sample of
defined groups of Gulf War veterans is required to determine the rate at which Gulf War veterans, or
particular subgroups, are affected by L. tropica or other leishmania infections.

Table 1. Post-War Assessment of Infection in Gulf War Veterans: Leishmaniasis
Study

Method

Key Findings

DeFraites327 Serology

2 of 78 symptomatic GWV had elevated titers to L. tropica

Magill955

Culture

12 cases of viscerotropic leishmaniasis due to L. tropica infection

unknown

20 cases of cutaneous leishmaniasis identified in GWV

838,954

Kreutzer

Bourdette159 ELISA assay under
development

9% of 200 GWV tested positive for L. tropica: 10% of GWI cases vs. 4%
of controls (p = 0.15)

Fukuda464

Serology

5% of 158 GWV tested positive for L. tropica or L. donovani, no difference
by CMI case status

Koch824

Serology

None of 24 GWV with chronic gastrointestinal symptoms tested positive
for leishmaniasis (species not identified)

Abbreviations: GWV = Gulf War veterans, CMI = chronic multisymptom illness

Infectious Diseases in Gulf War Veterans  191

The most informative research of this type comes from an unpublished study conducted by VA’s Portland
Environmental Hazards Research Center. The study assessed the prevalence of L. tropica infection in a
random sample of 200 Gulf War veterans, using an assay that was being developed and tested in a
collaborative effort between DOD and a private company. The Portland study was funded in 1994 by the
Department of Veterans Affairs. Results were reported at the 1998 federal Gulf War research
conference159 and also shared in detail with the Committee.1478 The enzyme-linked immunoassay
(ELISA) test used to detect evidence of L. tropica infection had previously been shown to detect
reactivity to this organism in Gulf War veterans with culture-verified viscerotropic leishmaniasis, and in
patients with cutaneous leishmaniasis.345
Results of the Portland study indicated that, overall, nine percent of 200 Gulf War veterans tested positive
for L. tropica, with values more than three standard deviations above the mean found in healthy,
nonveteran controls. Among the 167 veterans identified as either Gulf War illness cases or controls using
the Oregon case definition, the infection rate was somewhat higher for cases. Ten percent of Gulf War
illness cases tested positive, compared to four percent of Gulf War veteran controls (exact p value =
0.15).1478 This trend for a possible association of illness with infection was intriguing, but not statistically
significant in this small sample. No follow up studies were conducted, and no additional efforts to
validate the ELISA assay used in the study have been reported. Like the 12 Gulf War veterans
determined to have viscerotropic leishmaniasis using more rigorous methods,955 no Gulf War veterans in
the Portland study exhibited signs of cutaneous leishmaniasis.
The Committee looks forward to reviewing results from an ongoing VA study that will assess the
prevalence of occult leishmania infection in Gulf War veterans using an assay being developed by
investigators at the Omaha VAMC.
Mycoplasma infection in Gulf War veterans. Mycoplasma are small bacteria-like organisms that
lack a cell wall but are capable of independent self-replication. Various mycoplasma species are known
to produce human diseases affecting different organ systems.107,1730 Beginning in the middle 1990s, Dr.
Garth Nicolson and colleagues reported that a sizable proportion of symptomatic Gulf War veterans were
infected by a particular mycoplasma species, mycoplasma fermentans (incognitus).1118 This organism had
first been described in the late 1980s by Dr. S.C. Lo, who identified it in patients infected with
HIV.920,922,924 Subsequent studies, however, called into question the uniqueness of the incognitus strain,
indicating that it was not distinct from other M. fermentans.1339,1351
Questions have been raised about whether M. fermentans is pathogenic in humans,107,381 although serious
illness has been described in persons with well-characterized infections.118,921,925 One study has reported
that a large proportion of adults (44%) have M. fermentans in their saliva,244 suggesting this organism
may be a common constituent of human saliva. M. fermentans is less commonly found in the blood of
healthy individuals, however, with studies generally detecting it in 5-10 percent of non-diseased controls
and adults in the general population.381,525,772,835,1114,1116,1123
Dr. Nicolson reported that M. fermentans infection in Gulf War veterans could not be reliably detected
using conventional serological methods, since the infection was intracellular and not, over the long term,
associated with an identifiable antibody response.1117 He identified the infection in Gulf War illness
patients using specialized DNA detection methods developed in his laboratory.1118 A high proportion of
symptomatic family members of ill Gulf War veterans were also reported to test positive for M.
fermentans.1113,1117,1118 In case series reports, Dr. Nicolson indicated that treating mycoplasma-infected
veterans with multiple extended courses of antibiotics successfully improved or eliminated their
symptoms.1118,1119 Speculation concerning possible sources of this infection included naturally acquired
infection, exposure to bioweapons in theater, and vaccine contamination.589,608,1112,1113,1115

192  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Table 2. Post-War Assessment of Infection in Gulf War Veterans: Mycoplasma
Study

Assay

Key Findings

20021116

Nucleoprotein
gene tracking
Nucleoprotein
gene tracking
Forensic PCR

20031114

Forensic PCR

14 (47%) of 30 symptomatic GWV tested positive for mycoplasma; 0 of 21 healthy
controls tested positive for mycoplasma
76 (46%) of 170 GWV with GWI tested positive for mycoplasma; 2 (5%) of 41 healthy
controls tested positive
8 of 8 GWV with ALS tested positive for mycoplasma, 7 for M. fermentans; 22/28
civilian ALS patients tested positive for mycoplasma, 3 for M. fermentans
45 (41%) of 110 GWV with GWI tested positive for mycoplasma, 37 for M.
fermentans; 6 (9%) of 70 healthy controls tested positive for mycoplasma, 2 for
M. fermentans

Nicolson
19961118
19981111

Donta263,355
2004

PCR

546 (39%) of 1,387 GWV with GWI screened for VA antibiotic clinical trial tested
positive for at least one of three mycoplasma species

Vojdani1732
1999

Multiplex PCR

33 (55%) of 60 GWV with GWI tested positive for mycoplasma, 20 for M. fermentans;
24 (15%) of 160 healthy controls tested positive for mycoplasma, 13 for
M. fermentans

Gray525
1999

Serologic testing

7(11%) of 64 GWV were mycoplasma positive prior to deployment and 11 (19%)
developed new mycoplasma infection after deployment; 3 (9%) of 32
nondeployed era veterans were mycoplasma positive prior to the war and 4
(14%) developed new mycoplasma infection after the war. No sign. association
between mycoplasma infection and development of symptoms.

Lo923
2000

Serologic testing

34 (5%) of 718 GWV referred to Phase II of the CCEP had antibodies to
M.fermentans prior to deployment, 8 (1%) seroconverted after deployment; 116
(5%) of 2233 GWV who were not in CCEP had antibodies to M. fermentans prior
to deployment, 26 (1%) seroconverted after deployment.

Abbreviations: PCR = polymerase chain reaction, CCEP = DOD Comprehensive Clinical Evaluation Program,
GWV = Gulf War veterans, GWI = Gulf War illness, ALS = amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, sign. = statistically significant

These reports stirred considerable interest and controversy, and several studies have now been conducted
to determine rates of mycoplasma infection in Gulf War veterans. (Table 2) Dr. Lo indicated that
evidence of M. fermentans infection should be detectable in most individuals using serological methods.
His large study found no difference in M. fermentans seropositivity or wartime seroconversion rates in ill
Gulf War veterans examined in DOD’s Gulf War registry program compared to veterans not evaluated in
the program.923 Similarly, a large study of Navy Seabees reported no difference in rates of detectable
antibodies to mycoplasma between Gulf War and nondeployed era veterans, and no association of
mycoplasma antibodies with symptoms.525
In contrast, three research groups have identified evidence of mycoplasma infection in a substantial
number of ill Gulf War veterans using specialized DNA detection methods. Dr. Nicolson and colleagues,
in several studies, have reported DNA evidence of mycoplasma infection in 40 to 45 percent of
symptomatic Gulf War veterans, but less than 10 percent of healthy controls.1111,1116-1118 Similarly, a study
evaluating samples submitted to a clinical laboratory indicated that 55 percent of symptomatic Gulf War
veterans tested positive for mycoplasma, compared to 15 percent of healthy controls.1732 In addition, 39
percent of symptomatic Gulf War veterans screened for participation in VA’s large antibiotic clinical trial
tested positive for mycoplasma infection using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods.263,355
The general consistency of studies that have detected mycoplasma DNA in Gulf War veterans appears
compelling. But inconsistencies between PCR results from several laboratories that tested for
mycoplasma infection for VA’s antibiotic trial raises some doubt about whether the methods used to
Infectious Diseases in Gulf War Veterans  193

Table 3. Post-War Assessment of Infection in Air Force Gulf War Veterans: CDC Study
Method

Organism Tested: Key Findings

Serologic testing for Anthrax protective antigen: 9% positive, no difference by CMI case status
antibodies in 158 Gulf
Botulinum toxin: 6% positive, no difference by CMI case status
War veterans
Coxiella burnetii: 4% positive, no difference by CMI case status
Dengue virus: 10% positive, no difference by CMI case status
E. chaffeensis: 3% positive, no difference by CMI case status
Leishmania: 5% positive, no difference by CMI case status
Sandfly fever virus: CMI cases 9% positive, controls 2% positive
Toxoplasma gondii: 19% positive, no difference by CMI case status
Yellow fever virus: 83% positive (due to vaccine), no difference by CMI case status
No veterans tested positive for Shistosoma species or S. stercoralis, or for West Nile, Sindbis,
Toscana, Karimbad, or Ishafan viruses
Stool specimen
cultures in 158 Gulf
War veterans

Blastocystis hominis: 8% positive, no difference by CMI case status
Enteroviruses: 9% positive, no difference by CMI case status
Giardia lamblia: 1% positive, no difference by CMI case status
No veterans tested positive for Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter, Yersinia, pathogenic E. coli,
Microsporidia, Cryptosporidium parvum, Cyclospora cayetanensis, Isopora belli, or Entamoeba
histolytica.

Source: Fukuda;464 CMI = chronic multisymptom illness

detect mycoplasma infection—prior to and throughout the trial—were reliable, as discussed in the
Committee’s 2004 report.353,403 As a result, it is not possible to say with certainty whether mycoplasma
infection is associated with Gulf War illness. Uncertainties stem from questions about the reliability of
the DNA methods used, the lack of replication of DNA findings reported from undefined samples, and
conflicting information provided by serological testing.
Still, it is important that three different research teams, using somewhat different methods, have found
that 39-50 percent of symptomatic Gulf War veterans show evidence of mycoplasma DNA in their blood,
particularly studies that found rates in symptomatic Gulf War veterans to significantly exceed those of
healthy controls.263,1111,1732 Mycoplasma infection is one of a limited number of objectively-measured
parameters reported to distinguish symptomatic Gulf War veterans from healthy controls. It is therefore
important to learn, more definitively, whether it is a factor in even a subset of Gulf War illness cases.
If M. fermentans infection rates were shown more definitively to be elevated in ill Gulf War veterans,
important questions would still remain, however.353,1730 It would be important to determine if identifiable
illness or deployment subgroups have higher or lower rates of mycoplasma infection. It would also be
necessary to clarify whether mycoplasma is a causal factor in Gulf War illness or an opportunistic
infection, perhaps associated with general debilitation. Studies using PCR methods similar to those used
in Gulf War studies have reported elevated rates of mycoplasma infection in civilian patients with CFS,
fibromyalgia, ALS, and rheumatoid arthritis.552,1095,1114,1116,1123,1731 Investigators have suggested that
mycoplasma infection may underlie some of the symptoms common to these conditions,1732 perhaps
acting as a cofactor that may stimulate increased production of proinflammatory cytokines.1081,1730
Reports have documented recovery from symptoms of persistent fatigue and debilitation in civilian
patients with elevated levels of M. fermentans who were successfully treated with antibiotics.118,921

194  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

It is important to determine more conclusively if mycoplasma infections occur at excess rates in Gulf War
veterans, if they are associated with Gulf War illness, and to further characterize the nature of any
identified association. Unanswered questions about detection methods requires that more conclusive
studies be conducted to determine if testing results in blinded samples obtained from symptomatic and
healthy veterans can be independently confirmed by more than one laboratory. Available evidence does
not provide a clear indication of whether mycoplasma infection does or does not have a role in Gulf War
illness. If such an association is confirmed, it will be important to ascertain if mycoplasma infection
represents an initiating, perpetuating, or opportunistic infection in relation to veterans’ symptoms, and if
its detection provides a useful objective marker that identifies a subset of ill veterans.
CDC evaluation of infection in Air Force veterans. The most extensive assessment of diverse
types of infection following Gulf War service comes from a study conducted by the U.S. Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).464 Results are summarized in Table 3. The study evaluated
serum and stool samples in 158 Gulf War veterans from a single Air Force National Guard unit: 99 who
met criteria for chronic multisymptom illness (CMI) and 59 controls. Although laboratory testing of Gulf
War personnel in theater and immediately after their return had identified no cases of sand fly fever, six
percent of veterans in the CDC study tested positive. Veterans with CMI had a five-fold higher rate of
seropositivity than controls, but this excess was not statistically significant in this small sample. Other
identified infections generally occurred at low rates and affected similar proportions of veterans with CMI
and controls.464
Table 4. Post-War Assessment of Infection in Gulf War Veterans: Herpes Viruses
Study

Method

Key Findings

Carver214
1994

Serology in 37 Gulf
War veterans with
CFS

EBV viral capsid IgG and nuclear antigen antibodies:100% positive
EBV early antigen and nuclear antigen antibodies: 68% positive
EBV viral capsid IgM: 5% positive

Milner1050
1994

Serology in 85
symptomatic Gulf
War veterans

49% positive for recent or reactivated EBV
39% positive for recent or reactivated CMV

Wallace1746
1999

PCR of PBMCs of 46
GW veterans with
CFS, 32 healthy GW
veterans

HHV6 DNA detected in 0 sick, and 0 healthy GW veteran
HHV7 DNA detected in 48% of sick and 44% of healthy GW veterans
EBV DNA detected in 1 sick, 0 healthy GW veterans
No CMV DNA detected in sick or healthy veterans

Vojdani1734
2004

Serology in 100 GW Veterans with GWI had significantly elevated IgM titers for EBV viral
veterans with GWI, capsid antigen and IgG titers for CMV, HSV1,HSV2, HHV6 and VZV.
100 healthy controls

Abbreviations: EBV = Epstein-Barr virus, CMV = cytomegalovirus, HHV = human herpes virus, HSV = herpes simplex virus,
VZV = varicella zoster virus, PCR = polymerase chain reaction, PBMC = peripheral blood mononuclear cells
CFS = chronic fatigue syndrome, GWI = Gulf War illness

Herpes virus infection in Gulf War veterans. Herpes viruses are known to produce chronic
infection that can lie dormant or become reactivated under a variety of conditions. In the large U.S. Gulf
War clinical study, veterans who reported having mononucleosis, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection,
prior to the war had nearly three times the rate of chronic multisymptom illness as veterans who had not
had mononucleosis.142 Several herpes viruses have been associated with persistent symptoms and
syndromes similar to those affecting Gulf War veterans.7,186,828,887 One year after their return from theater,
73 percent of 37 Indiana reservists who met criteria for chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) showed evidence
of either active EBV infection or reactivation of a previous EBV infection.214 Investigators speculated that

Infectious Diseases in Gulf War Veterans  195

this activation may have resulted from deployment-related factors such as reduced sleep, prolonged
exposure to sun and high temperatures, or psychosocial factors.
Findings from studies that have evaluated rates of herpes virus infections in Gulf War veterans are
summarized in Table 4 and, as shown, have been variable. A 1994 clinical series reported by a VA
investigator indicated that, among 85 symptomatic Gulf War veterans, 49 percent showed evidence of
recent or reactivated EBV infection and 39 percent had evidence of cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection. A
later study from New Jersey investigators evaluated antibody titers for human herpes virus six (HHV6)
and EBV in 46 Gulf War veterans with CFS, and tested sick veterans and controls for PCR evidence of
infection by multiple herpes viruses. No serological or PCR differences were found between veterans
with CFS and healthy controls.1746 In contrast, a study that compared clinical laboratory samples from
100 symptomatic Gulf War veterans and 50 healthy controls found that Gulf War veterans had
significantly higher antibody titers to multiple herpes virus antigens, including EBV viral capsid antigen,
CMV, HHV6, herpes simplex types 1 and 2, and varicella zoster virus.1734
Very little additional information is available concerning infectious diseases in Gulf War veterans.
Clinical evaluation of a sample of over 350 Gulf War veterans from the Pacific Northwest identified none
with HIV, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, or syphilis, and only one with an elevated Lyme disease titer.160 Gulf
War registry programs have provided limited information, since registry protocols did not require
veterans to be screened for specific infectious diseases. The most frequently identified infections in both
registries were fungal infections of the feet, nails, and groin area.1651 In addition, a 1992 Army
epidemiologic investigation of unexplained symptoms in an Indiana Army Reserve unit included a limited
number of tests for infectious diseases. Serologic testing was conducted on six symptomatic soldiers for
brucellosis and two for Borrelia burgdorferi, but none tested positive. Stool samples were analyzed for
seven soldiers with diarrhea: none were positive for enteric pathogens, but two were positive for
Blastocystis hominis. 327
Antibiotic Treatment of Gulf War Illness
A 48-year old U.S. Marine Corps officer, attached to the Central Command staff, was
deployed in Saudi Arabia at ODS Central Command Headquarters. He examined SCUD (SS1) missile impact sites. Within 10 months after his return to the United States he presented
with chronic fatigue, skin rashes, diarrhea, headaches, aching joints, muscle pain, fevers,
sleep problems, nausea, vision problems, memory loss, and dental problems. ….. After two
cycles of doxycycline, he completely recovered.
- Case report, antibiotic treatment of Gulf War veteran1118

In theory, insights concerning a possible link between infectious disease and Gulf War illness could be
provided by results obtained when ill veterans are treated with antibiotics. As detailed in the first section
of this report, two case series and two clinical trials have assessed the effectiveness of prolonged and/or
high-dose antibiotic therapy for the chronic symptoms of Gulf War illness. The two case series reports
from Dr. Nicolson and colleagues both indicated that repeated courses of antibiotics provided substantial
improvement for symptomatic Gulf War veterans.1118,1119 In response to these reports, VA conducted a
large multi-center randomized trial of a 12 month course of doxycycline treatment for Gulf War illness in
veterans who tested positive for mycoplasma infection.355 Study results indicated that doxycycline
therapy provided, at most, short term benefit, but no sustained improvement in veterans’ functional status
or symptoms. However, as described in the Committee’s 2004 report, a number of methodological issues
raised questions about the degree to which the study reliably addressed questions concerning detection
and treatment of mycoplasma infection in symptomatic veterans.1268
A second federally-funded trial of antibiotic therapy was conducted by the Louisiana Medical Foundation,
directed by Dr. Edward Hyman.670 Results of this randomized, placebo-controlled trial of an

196  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

unconventional, high dose antibiotic regimen were never published. As presented to the Committee by
Dr. Hyman’s collaborators, however, the treatment appeared to provide marked improvement for veterans
with Gulf War illness.332 But questions surrounding the theory underlying the treatment,672,1455 as well as
the lack of peer review and publication of study results also leave major uncertainties about the utility of
this protocol for Gulf War illness. So, although reports suggesting that antibiotic treatments provide
benefit for ill Gulf War veterans are intriguing, they have not thus far provided clear insights regarding a
potential role for infections in the pathophysiology of Gulf War illness.
Biological Warfare Agents in the Gulf War
Questions have been raised about whether Gulf War veterans might have been exposed to biological
weapons during deployment, and if such exposures could account, at least in part, for veterans’ persistent
symptoms.1559,1688 Government and research reports that have reviewed the issue have generally
considered this to be unlikely, based on information available from DOD, the Central Intelligence Agency
(CIA), The United Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM), and other sources.666,1227,1616,1690,1749 The
Committee has identified little information—scientific or anecdotal—that suggests any association
between biological weapons exposure and Gulf War illness. But evidence that directly addresses this
issue is limited, due in part to limits in biological detection capabilities in theater and the postwar loss of
military logs that recorded suspected biological events during the war.1602
No cases of acute or persistent disease due to identified biological warfare agents in the Gulf War have
been reported. Therefore, the central outstanding question is whether exposure to still-unidentified
biowarfare agents in theater could account for any cases of Gulf War illness. Determining if this is a
reasonable possibility requires two types of information. The first relates to whether Iraq possessed one or
more bioweapons that could potentially cause chronic symptoms similar to those of Gulf War illness.
The second concerns the likelihood that Gulf War veterans were exposed to such agents.
Iraqi biological weapons. Iraq denied having biological weapons after the Gulf War, and actively
concealed evidence related to its biological weapons program.693 Iraqi officials were forced to
acknowledge these weapons in 1995, when information came to light from U.N. inspections and the
defection of Husayn Kamil, who had overseen Iraq’s biological weapons program.693 It has now been
documented that Iraq had an active biological weapons program prior to and during the Gulf War. The
program involved multiple types of pathogens—bacterial, viral, and fungal, as well as toxins—that were
in various stages of research, production, and weaponization.693,1301,1494,1839
Prior to the Gulf War, bombs and missiles used for chemical weapons were adapted as delivery systems
for biological weapons, and pesticide sprayers were adapted for dispersion of biological agents and
installed on aircraft and land vehicles. These delivery systems have been described as inefficient and
inaccurate, but capable of causing harm.693,1839 Information obtained after the war from United Nations
inspectors and Iraqi informants indicates that Iraq had loaded anthrax, botulinum toxin, and aflatoxin into
missiles and bombs in preparing for the Gulf War1697,1749 and that Sadam Hussein had authorized the use
of biological weapons in relation to certain circumstances and targets.693,1616 Central Intelligence Agency
reports indicate that during the war, warheads containing anthrax were deployed to four locations in
Iraq.693,1749
As described in relation to chemical weapons, biological weapon exposures might conceivably have
occurred as a result of Iraq’s offensive use of biological agents or inadvertently as a result of Coalition
troops’ handling or destruction of Iraq’s biological weapons. Government investigations have
consistently concluded, however, that it is unlikely that biological agents were released during the war,
either as a result of Iraq’s offensive use or due to Coalition bombing of biological weapons
sites.1589,1616,1749

Infectious Diseases in Gulf War Veterans  197

Anthrax causes an acute and serious upper respiratory condition that is often fatal; it is unlikely that an
anthrax exposure event of any size would go undetected. Further, anthrax infection is not known to be
associated with a persistent constellation of symptoms similar to those of Gulf War illness. Botulinum
toxin is a neurotoxin, one of the deadliest poisons known. Exposures in theater, even at very low levels,
would likely have caused noticeable casualties. Botulinum toxin is also not known to cause a persistent
multisymptom condition in those who survive acute disease following exposure.
Iraq’s development of aflatoxin as a bioweapon was not known until after the war and has puzzled
observers.693,1494,1616,1839 Although long-term exposure can cause cancer and adverse effects on liver and
kidney function, aflatoxin has little identified utility for killing or disabling an enemy during war. The
Iraq Survey Group speculated that Iraq may have overstated its development of aflatoxin to conceal
production of other agents. It also indicated that Iraq had tested aflatoxin in combination with
incapacitating chemical agents—CS (tear gas) and CN (chloroacetophenone)—as well as mustard. No
evidence was identified, however, that combined biological/chemical weapons were produced or
fielded.693
Two additional biological agents that were potentially available to Iraq are known to cause chronic
problems that have similarities to Gulf War illness. T-2 mycotoxin, a type of trichothecene mycotoxin,
was developed by the Soviets after World War II.1616 Reports have suggested it may have been used by
communist forces in Laos, Cambodia, and Afghanistan during the 1970s and possibly by Iraq, in
combination with mustard gas, in the Iraq/Iran War in the 1980s.605,736,1301,1561 Acute symptoms include
skin redness and blistering, eye irritation, respiratory problems, vomiting and diarrhea, fatigue, and
muscle pain. Long term sequelae include immune suppression, cognitive problems and diarrhea.298 The
RAND report on chemical and biological weapons concluded that acute exposures would not likely have
gone undetected, however, due to the extreme sensitivity of skin and eyes to this substance.74
Brucella species are also known to have been developed as biological weapons by the Soviet Union.881
Iraq was known to possess cultures of at least two species, and to have conducted research specifically on
B. abortus.693 Brucella can cause a subclinical infection or a delayed symptom complex that resembles
Gulf War illness. Symptoms may include fever, headache, weakness, fatigue, joint pain, gastrointestinal
symptoms, altered mood and cognition, and respiratory problems.574 However, there has been no reported
evidence, obtained prior to or after the war, indicating that Iraq mass-produced or weaponized brucella.
Detection of biological agents in theater. A number of measures were taken to detect and identify
biological agents during the Gulf War. These focused primarily on anthrax and botulinum toxin, the two
agents believed by military planners to have been weaponized by Iraq. Vaccines for both agents were
provided to U.S. troops, as supplies allowed. In theater, biological teams were stationed in 12 locations,
equipped with air sampling and biological detection equipment.1616 Monitoring units collected airborne
particulates and tested samples for the presence of anthrax and botulinum toxin. Identification of other
agents required samples to be submitted to laboratories in theater or the states. Field samples were also
collected from dead animals, water, and soil. Of 943 air samples taken in the field, 14 were initially
identified as being positive for anthrax and three for botulinum toxin. All were later determined to be
false positives after more definitive testing at military laboratories in Saudi Arabia.1616 Other samples
testing positive for chemical or biological agents in theater were sent to Fort Detrick for more definitive
testing. Although specific results of these tests were not made available to OSAGWI investigators, DOD
has reported that the samples “yielded no red flags identifying or confirming biological warfare
agents.”1616
The Coalition’s ability to detect biological agents in theater was limited, however. Air sampling was
done primarily during night time hours in the 12 selected areas, and only anthrax and botulinum toxin
could be detected in the field.1616 Even for those agents, detection capabilities have been described as
rudimentary.1227,1670,1688,1690 For example, monitoring equipment could not reliably detect aerosols

198  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

containing anthrax or botulinum toxin, the form that would be expected in relation to an exploding missile
used in a biological attack.1839 The OSAGWI investigation concluded that it was not possible to
categorically rule out any use of biological weapons in theater. However, data and information from
multiple sources had not provided any confirmed evidence that biological agents had been released nor
that any troops had been exposed.1616
It is not certain that Iraqi disclosures and subsequent investigations have provided a complete picture of
Iraq’s biological program. In addition, U.S. capabilities for detecting biological agents in theater were
limited. But available results from air monitoring, environmental samples, and clinical testing provide no
indication that Gulf War veterans were exposed to, nor that they became ill as a result of, biological
weapons during deployment. It also appears unlikely that undocumented exposure to biological agents
that may have been present in theater would have resulted in the types of chronic symptoms associated
with Gulf War illness. So, although it is not possible to rule out the possibility of discrete incidents
involving exposure to unknown agents, there is currently no basis for suggesting a link between
biological weapons and Gulf War illness.
Summary. Infectious diseases in Gulf War Veterans. Acute respiratory and diarrheal diseases
affected a sizable proportion of military personnel during the Gulf War. However, Gulf War personnel
were minimally affected by diseases endemic to the region that had historically been problematic for
troops deployed to the Middle East. No evidence has indicated that Gulf War veterans were exposed to
biological weapons during the war, or that Gulf War illness is the result of such exposures. Some
pathogens to which veterans may have been exposed in theater can produce chronic conditions similar to
Gulf War illness. But relatively few studies have systematically evaluated Gulf War veterans for
evidence of active or latent infection by those organisms. Primary interest has focused on two
intracellular infections: an atypical systemic leishmaniasis caused by L. tropica and infection by
mycoplasma fermentans.
Viscerotropic leishmaniasis has been confirmed in 12 Gulf War veterans, but the total number of cases is
not known. This infection is difficult to identify and its prevalence in Gulf War veterans or association
with Gulf War illness has not been systematically evaluated. Several studies have identified evidence of
mycoplasma DNA in about 40 percent of symptomatic Gulf War veterans, a rate significantly higher than
that found in healthy controls. But uncertainties about test reliability and conflicting results from other
studies have called these findings into question. Therefore, questions remain concerning rates of infection
by both leishmania and mycoplasma and their potential association with Gulf War illness.

Infectious Diseases in Gulf War Veterans  199

Recommendations
Because of unanswered questions related to possible associations between Gulf War illness and persistent
infections in Gulf War veterans, the Committee recommends the following research:


Using the most reliable assay methods available, determine the rate of leishmania infection,
particularly L. tropica infection, in veterans with Gulf War illness and healthy controls



Using the most reliable DNA and serological assay methods available, determine the rate of
mycoplasma infection, particularly M. fermentans, in veterans with Gulf War illness and healthy
controls

200  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Other Exposures in Theater
Sand, Tent Heaters, Solvents, Jet Fuel, CARC,
and Contaminated Food and Water
In the 17 years since Desert Storm, many possible causes or contributors to Gulf War illness have been
suggested. In addition to the Gulf War-related exposures previously described, the Committee reviewed
available information on the health of Gulf War veterans in relation to sand and particulates,
petrochemical exposures other than oil well fires (tent heaters, solvents, jet fuel), chemical agent resistant
coating (CARC paint), and contaminated food and water. Each of these exposures have the potential to
cause adverse health effects, some chronic, and may have relevance to Gulf War veterans’ multisymptom
illness. They are considered in aggregate here in considerably less detail than exposures previously
discussed for a number of reasons. For some, there was little systematically-collected information
concerning their relationship with chronic symptoms or multisymptom illness in Gulf War veterans. In
addition, some of the exposures considered here, despite their potential for causing adverse effects, are
unlikely to have contributed to Gulf War illness for most ill veterans based on what is known about the
pattern and extent of veterans’ exposures during deployment. This would include exposures with known
toxic effects that were encountered by a very limited number of Gulf War veterans, and exposures widely
encountered during deployment, but in patterns similar to those associated with other deployments or
military service at home.
The general approach used in evaluating each of these exposures, although described in less detail, was
the same as that used for other Gulf War exposures. The Committee reviewed available information
about the extent and patterns of the exposure in theater, what is known generally from human and animal
studies about toxic effects of the exposure, and information from studies of Gulf War veterans concerning
associations between the exposure and symptom complexes, multisymptom illness, and other health
outcomes.
Sand and Particulate Exposures in the Gulf War
Images of the dense, black smoke generated by burning oil well fires in Kuwait are quite familiar, but
veterans also returned home with dramatic stories of blinding sandstorms in the desert that could last for
many hours, sometimes days. On some days, sandstorms were extreme enough to drastically reduce
visibility and require personnel to don protective goggles and/or tie cloths over their noses and mouths to
continue their duties.1349,1625 Levels of airborne particulates in Kuwait are among the highest in the
world,1578 and rates of asthma and other respiratory conditions in the local population are substantially
higher than in the U.S.1621 Newly arriving troops often developed what is commonly called the “Kuwaiti
crud,” a limited-duration cough or flu-like condition resulting from breathing in high levels of
particulates.903,1349 Airborne particulates were especially a problem during the spring and summer
months, due to the intensity of the shamal winds blowing in the region.1625
Military personnel in the Gulf War were exposed to particulates from multiple sources, including the
high, naturally occurring background levels in the region, particulates in the smoke generated from
burning oil well fires, particulates in tents when tent heaters were in use, and additional particulates
associated with engine exhaust and industrial pollution in the region. Air quality monitoring conducted
by the Army at locations throughout Kuwait and Saudi Arabia beginning in May 1991 indicated that
levels of particulates smaller than 10 microns were many time higher than those considered safe by U.S.
air quality standards.1587,1625 The Department of Defense estimated that troops in the region would have
been exposed to elevated levels of particulates for an average of 153 days.1625 Air monitoring indicated

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that, during the months that oil fires were burning, 75 percent of measured particulates were due to
sand.1587
Health effects of particulates vary with the concentration and duration of exposure, and with the physical
and chemical properties of particles—their size, shape, and chemical composition. A number of health
concerns relate particularly to smaller size particulates. Those between 2.5 and 10 microns in diameter
can be inhaled into and accumulate in the lungs; those between 0.1 and 2.5 microns can lodge more
deeply into the alveoli; and those smaller than 0.1 microns (also known as ultrafine particulates) can cross
the pulmonary epithelium and enter the general circulation. The sand in the Kuwait region is extremely
fine—almost powder-like—and has often been described as being more like dust than the types of sand
more familiar to Americans. It also has a relatively low silica content. A 2000 report commissioned by
DOD concluded that exposure to airborne particulates in the region was not expected to produce long
term silica-related health effects.1536
Exposure to high levels of particulates have most commonly been associated with acute and chronic
respiratory and cardiovascular effects, including exacerbation of preexisting conditions.1045,1201,1220
Temporary spikes in urban levels of airborne particulates result in increases in emergency room visits and
mortality for individuals who are most vulnerable.109,626,856
Recent animal studies also indicate that inhaled ultrafine particulates are associated with systemic
immune and inflammatory effects.492,1703 After entering the circulation from the lungs, ultrafine
particulates access a variety of tissues, including the liver and the brain.1107,1135,1136 Airborne ultrafine
particulates may also enter the brain directly through the nose via olfactory neuronal pathways, where
they can accumulate and, according to several recent studies, produce neuroinflammatory
effects.147,206,397,1135,1719 This is particularly of interest in light of research presented to the Committee
indicating that DU entry into the brain through the nose was enhanced in the presence of nasal
inflammation,896 presumably a common condition in Kuwait as a result of the high levels of airborne
particulates.
In 1992, the first published report of an unexplained illness in Gulf War veterans described a condition
that affected troops housed in abandoned apartment buildings in Al Eskan village, Saudi Arabia, which
had not been inhabited for the previous decade.832 The report indicated that about two-thirds of the
soldiers became ill with respiratory and gastrointestinal symptoms within 72 hours of arriving in
quarters. Although most recovered with antibiotic treatment, some relapsed and were subsequently
unresponsive to treatment. Investigators hypothesized that the condition had resulted from troops’
exposure to the mix of fine dust and pigeon droppings that covered their living area, triggering
immunopathologic reactions and a unique pneumonitis dubbed “Al Eskan disease.” Their analysis of the
sand in the area identified it as a very fine dust (0.1 – 0.25 microns) from which bacteria and fungi were
isolated. Investigators hypothesized that this dust may have acted as a carrier, enhancing delivery of
pathogens and/or chemical exposures during deployment and exacerbating their effects.831,833 No data
were provided, however, specifically demonstrating this carrier effect nor identifying health effects
related to the combined particulate/toxin exposure. More recently, scientists at the Naval Medical
Research Center have undertaken detailed investigations of the characteristics and composition of the
sand in the Kuwait region, and its potential to cause adverse health effects.942 It is hoped these data will
provide additional insights regarding the “dirty dust” hypothesis put forward in the wake of the Gulf War.
As described, sand and particulate exposure were ubiquitous throughout the Gulf War theater.
Consequently, very limited useful information can be obtained from epidemiologic assessment of
associations between particulates and multisymptom conditions. About half of Navy Seabees and
Australian veterans who served in the Gulf War reported they experienced sandstorms during
deployment,524,790 and a similar proportion of Air Guard troops reported they spent considerable time
sandbagging or digging in sand while in theater.1124 As shown in Appendix A-10, these variables were

202  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

associated with elevated rates of chronic symptoms and multisymptom illness in unadjusted analyses but,
after adjustment for multiple exposures, sandstorms remained a significant risk factor for Gulf War illness
only for Navy Seabees.527 The location-related pattern of Gulf War illness observed in several
studies692,1236,1476 is inconsistent with the widespread presence of blowing sand and high levels of
particulates throughout the region. In addition, if blowing sand and particulates were a primary cause for
Gulf War illness, high rates of unexplained multisymptom conditions would be expected among
personnel serving in the current Iraq War, which has thus far not been the case.631
In summary, Gulf War veterans were exposed to extremely high levels of airborne particulates from
multiple sources during deployment. Most particulates, including fine and ultrafine particles, were due to
the high levels of fine, blowing sand in the region. Animal studies have recently found that inhaled
ultrafine particulates may have immune and inflammatory effects that were previously unrecognized, both
systemically and in the brain. Many questions remain, however, concerning what implications these
findings may have with respect to chronic brain and behavioral effects. Specific to the Gulf War
experience, little is known about the potential for synergistic effects between inhaled particulates and
other inhaled toxicants during the war. Given the many unanswered questions related to possible
neuroinflammatory and synergistic effects of inhaled ultrafine particulates, it is unknown whether they
may have contributed to chronic ill health in veterans in combination with other Gulf War exposures.
However, given the widespread of exposure to sand and particulates in the Gulf War and in the current
Iraq War, the Committee concludes they are unlikely to be a primary cause of Gulf War illness for most
affected veterans.
Exposure to Combustion Products from Tent Heaters in the Gulf War
Troops in the Gulf War theater experienced diverse living conditions during deployment. Some
personnel, for varying periods of time, might have slept under the stars or under their tanks in the desert,
been housed in tent cities erected for U.S. troops, camped in abandoned—sometimes waste infested—
housing areas in Southern Iraq, or housed in relatively comfortable accommodations in apartment
buildings or hotels. For those in tents during the colder months, November 1990 through April 1991, tent
heaters were used to keep warm. Different fuels were burned in these heaters—jet fuel, diesel fuel, and
kerosene—and reports indicate that heaters were typically unvented, allowing potentially harmful exhaust
to accumulate inside tents. Current policy directs that only Army-approved, vented tent heaters are to be
used in areas where people sleep and specify kerosene as the preferred fuel.1580
Fuel burned in heaters emits a complex mixture of gaseous compounds and particulates, similar to those
described in relation to oil well fires—carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxides
(NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), volatile organic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and
particulates of varying composition and size. Actual exposure levels experienced by troops inside tents
would have varied with the type of heater used, the fuel burned, and the duration of time the heater was
used. In cold weather, typical exposures might have occurred for a continuous 8 hours each day, for
weeks to months. Two studies from Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute characterized emissions
associated with three types of unvented heaters and three types of fuels used in the Gulf War, in
simulation experiments conducted using vinyl-backed Army tents.238,1838 Results indicated that when tent
doors were closed, CO, NOx and SOx exceeded established air quality standards.1838 Particulates, mostly
in the ultrafine range (0.2 – 0.3 microns), were also in excess of established standards and contained high
levels of sulfur, ammonium, and carbon.238
Adverse health effects potentially resulting from prolonged inhalation of fuel combustion products were
previously described in relation to oil fires and particulates. Briefly, high levels of inhaled particulates
can have adverse respiratory effects and ultrafine particulates may also be associated with neurological
effects.147,1136 Carbon monoxide impairs oxygen delivery to organs and tissues and can lead to

Other Exposures in Theater  203

neurological and cardiovascular effects, even death at extremely high levels. Other combustion-related
pollutants such as NOx and SOx are also associated with respiratory effects. The Institute of Medicine’s
report on Fuels, Combustion Products, and Propellants found that evidence supports an association
between fuel combustion products and lung cancer,684 but no excess of lung or other respiratory cancers
have been reported in Gulf War veterans. Four individuals are reported to have been hospitalized for
carbon monoxide poisoning during the Gulf War.1813
Epidemiologic studies indicate that a large proportion of Gulf War veterans used tent heaters during
deployment. Fifty to seventy percent of U.S. Army veterans1239,1708,1804 but only 21 percent of Navy
Seabees reported using tent heaters.524 Several studies have evaluated rates of symptom complexes and
multisymptom illness among veterans who reported using tent heaters during the war, as summarized in
Appendix A-5. In analyses that did not adjust for effects of other exposures in theater, use of tent heaters
was associated with higher rates of multisymptom conditions in three studies, with odds ratios ranging
from 1.9 for multisymptom illness to 2.8 for multiple chemical sensitivity.1264,1466,1698 Three studies
assessed this association, in two veteran populations, after adjusting for additional exposures in theater.
Studies of the Fort Devens Army cohort found that the use of tent heaters was significantly associated
with both cardiovascular and pulmonary symptoms,1239 and also with a modest excess of multisymptom
illness (OR = 1.4).1804 There was no association between use of tent heaters and Gulf War illness in the
Navy Seabees study.527
Taken together, this information indicates that a substantial proportion of personnel who served in the
Gulf War were potentially exposed to excess levels of particulates and air contaminants for varying
periods of time as a result of using unvented tent heaters. This exposure was more prevalent in Army
than Navy personnel and any effects resulting from tent heaters might be more pronounced in Army
veterans. It is unknown whether exposure to particulates and other contaminants produced by tent heaters
may have interacted synergistically with other exposures in theater, including other sources of particulates
and airborne pollutants in theater. The very limited amount of information available from epidemiologic
studies does not provide a clear indication of whether tent heaters may have contributed to Gulf War
illness for some individuals, but indicates that if there is an association, it is likely to be modest.
Organic Solvents in the Gulf War
The term “solvents” refers to a broad range of compounds of different types that have the capacity to
dissolve or dilute other chemicals. Organic solvents are widely used in the military and throughout
society. There are no government reports documenting the specific types of solvents used or the degree
of solvent exposures that occurred during the Gulf War. In the Institute of Medicine’s Gulf War and
Health, Volume 2: Insecticides and Solvents, the IOM panel reports that it gathered information from
veterans and the Department of Defense to generate a list of 53 individual solvents likely used during the
Gulf War.682 The list includes a diverse array of compounds used in painting, vehicle maintenance,
equipment repair, and cleaning and degreasing. There is little information concerning whether or how the
solvents used by military personnel during the Gulf War might have differed from solvents used in other
deployments or stateside, with the exception of jet fuels and CARC paint, which are discussed separately.
In epidemiologic studies and registries, at least half of Gulf War veterans have consistently reported some
exposure to “solvents,” as a general category, during deployment.751,788,839,1698
Toxic effects of individual solvents vary with the specific type of compound, exposure route, and dosage.
Solvent exposures often involve mixtures of multiple compounds, the combined effects of which are not
well understood. The central nervous system is a primary target of solvents, although some solvents are
known to have hematological effects or are associated with liver disease, renal toxicity, reproductive
effects, and cancers.89 Excess solvent exposure has long been associated with reports of toxic
encephalopathy, and specifically with a neurasthenic-type syndrome that resembles Gulf War

204  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

illness.61,532,578,913,1110 Symptoms typically include chronic headache, memory impairment, balance
problems, fatigue, and mood changes. Subtle indications of neuropathology may also be identified with
neurocognitive testing and brain imaging studies.33,595,1781 The existence of a unique syndrome (e.g.
“painters’ syndrome”) associated with chronic solvent exposure remains somewhat controversial,
however.31,940,1554,1555 Encephalopathy associated with solvent exposure is typically described in workers
exposed to relatively high levels of solvents for many years, as opposed to the briefer-duration exposures
associated with Gulf War service.1781 In its review of the occupational literature on solvent exposure, the
IOM concluded there was sufficient evidence to indicate that solvents are associated with leukemia and
suggestive evidence of an association between solvents and chronic neurobehavioral effects.682
Solvent exposure during the war, as a risk factor for chronic symptomatic illness, has been evaluated in
four Gulf War veteran populations. As shown in Appendix A-11, each study identified significant
associations between solvents and chronic symptom complexes in analyses that did not adjust for effects
of other exposures in theater.692,788,1264,1698 Solvents were not associated with chronic symptomatic illness,
however, in the one study that did control for effects of other exposures.695 Additional information
relevant to solvent exposures is provided by a population-based study of Gulf War veterans from the
Pacific Northwest. The study reported that veterans whose work in theater involved degreasing
machinery or repair of vehicles, generators, or batteries, had a 2-3 fold higher rate of multisymptom
illness than those with other occupations.1466 While interesting, these results are from crude analyses that
did not consider effects of other work activities or exposures, so it is not possible to determine whether
they are indicative of a true association.
In summary, chronic exposure to high levels of solvents has been associated, in occupational studies, with
a chronic encephalopathy that resembles Gulf War illness. It is likely that a large proportion of Gulf War
veterans were exposed to solvents of various types and at varying concentrations and durations during
deployment. There is little information, however, indicating that solvent exposure patterns in the Kuwaiti
Theater of Operations were either unique or excessive. The Committee identified no studies that
identified solvent exposure as an independent risk factor for chronic symptoms in Gulf War veterans.
The Committee also did not identify any reported incidents related to unusual or excess solvent exposure,
with the exception of fuels and CARC painting operations, and no testimony or anecdotal reports from
veterans describing the development of symptoms in relation to solvent exposure. Therefore, the
Committee concludes that solvent exposures during the Gulf War are not likely to have caused Gulf War
illness.
Jet Fuel in Relation to Gulf War Illness
Veterans in all areas of the Gulf War theater were commonly exposed to fuels of different types during
deployment. Government estimates indicate that nearly two billion gallons of fuel were used by the U.S.
military between August 1990 and May 1991 in the Gulf War.1506 About 75 percent of that was jet fuel,
used to power not only jets but vehicles on the ground—tanks and trucks. Jet fuel, along with kerosene,
was also burned in tent heaters, cook stoves, and generators, used to incinerate trash and human waste,
and burned to generate smoke as a method of obscuring troops and equipment. Uncombusted fuels were
also commonly sprayed or dumped on the ground to suppress dust and blowing sand, and used as solvents
in cleaning weapons and equipment. Twenty-four percent of the fuel used in theater was diesel, used for
many of the same purposes as jet fuel. Only one percent of the fuel used was regular gasoline.1506 The
majority of the fuel used by the U.S. during the war was obtained from local sources, primarily Saudi
Arabia.
The chemical and physical properties of uncombusted fuels differ from those of burning fuels and
exhaust. The present discussion focuses on health effects potentially associated with exposure to
uncombusted fuels; effects of combusted fuels are addressed in sections of the report related to oil well

Other Exposures in Theater  205

fires and tent heaters. During the Gulf War, the highest-level exposures to uncombusted fuels would have
occurred among personnel whose work related to the supply and storage of fuels, those who fueled and
worked with aircraft, those who fueled, maintained, or drove ground vehicles, and those exposed to fuels
that were sprayed or dumped onto the ground to suppress the blowing desert sand. In national studies,
about 80 percent of both U.S. and U.K. Gulf War veterans report being exposed to fumes from diesel or
petrochemicals during deployment, and 57-67 percent report dermal exposure to fuels.751,1698
He described one brigade dumping 30,000 gallons of diesel fuel on the roads daily, and said
U.S. service members living in tents near the roads—and particularly truck drivers carrying out
the spraying—complained of nausea from breathing the resulting fumes. As a result, the
preventive medicine person to whom they reported obtained respirators for the drivers’ use.
-- Report on testimony of Gulf War Army Sanitary Engineer,19961227

Petroleum-derived fuels are complex mixtures of organic compounds—hundreds of aliphatic and
aromatic hydrocarbons, other toxic solvents (e.g. benzenes, toluenes, xylenes) and various performanceenhancing additives.1287 The most widely-used fuel in the Gulf War was jet fuel and several types were in
use in theater. JP-4, a kerosene/gasoline mix, was used but was being phased out in 1991. JP-5,
primarily kerosene, was the Navy’s primary jet fuel. JP-8, a military version of the commercial jet A-1
fuel with additional additives, was designated the primary fuel for use in Army and Air Force aircraft and
ground vehicles. These generalizations did not always hold in the actual circumstances of war when, for
example, Air Force units were located on bases where only JP-4 was available, or Army vehicles used
diesel fuel due to operational problems. Different types of fuels have different toxicity profiles that relate
to the source and type of petroleum used, variability in refinery processes, and specific compounds and
additives contained in the fuel. JP-8 was designated as the primary military fuel of choice to replace JP-4
because it is less volatile, reducing the risk of explosions and fires, and contains lower levels of the toxic
chemicals n-hexane and benzene.1506,1579 However, JP-8 carries greater potential for dermal toxicity than
JP-4. In 2003, the National Research Council, citing uncertainties related to adverse effects of exposure
to JP-8, recommended that the military no longer use JP-8 for desert sand control or for obscuring troops
and equipment.1103
As with other classes of hazardous exposures, toxic effects of fuels depend on the specific type of fuel,
the physical state of the fuel, the dosage, and the route of exposure. Fuel exposure can occur through
inhalation of vapors and aerosols, through dermal absorption, and through ingestion. Despite their
widespread use, uncertainties remain concerning toxicological effects of jet fuels, particularly chronic
effects. The U.S. Air Force has sponsored a number of research initiatives in the past decade to address
questions relating to biological and behavioral health effects of jet fuels, particularly JP-8.792,1287 Health
effects described in association with jet fuel exposure include pulmonary effects, dermal effects,
neurobehavioral effects, and immune effects. People acutely exposed to high levels of JP-8 report
symptoms that include nausea, dizziness, fatigue, memory impairment, headache, respiratory distress, and
skin irritation, but are not reported to have excess healthcare visits or diagnosed medical
conditions.792,1221,1287
Studies evaluating effects of jet fuel exposure on the central nervous system are of particular interest in
relation to the chronic symptoms affecting Gulf War veterans. Human studies conducted more than
twenty years ago indicated that chronic exposure to jet fuel was associated with a multisymptom
syndrome (dizziness, headache, nausea, fatigue, memory difficulties, respiratory problems) accompanied
by shortened attention span, reduced auditory evoked cortical potentials, electroencephalogram
abnormalities, and psychiatric symptoms.817-819,1504 More recently, several studies have demonstrated
subtle central nervous system (CNS) effects in relation to lower-dose jet fuel exposure.1287,1290 For
example, exposure to JP-8 among workers at an Air National Guard base, some of whom had no direct

206  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

contact with fuels, was associated with significant neurocognitive impairment on the day of exposure.1557
Deficits were observed on measures of information processing and executive function and were most
pronounced in relation to more complex tasks. In a large study of Air Force personnel, workers with
higher level exposure to jet fuel continued to exhibit deficits in cognitive capacity (digit span, symbol
digit tests), and simple motor skills (tapping tests) 14-72 hours after exposure.792 Other studies have
demonstrated balance abnormalities1430 and alterations in blink response in workers exposed to jet fuel.1002
Although these studies have provided important insights regarding short-term effects of exposure to jet
fuels, they did not determine whether jet fuel can produce longer-term CNS effects in humans.
In animal studies, inhalation of jet fuel has been shown to modulate behavior and CNS neurotransmitters
as long as 85 days after exposure, resulting in reduced dopamine levels and increased levels of serotonin
metabolites HVA and 5-HIAA.1131,1317 Animal studies have also indicated that repeat inhalation of jet
fuel produces impaired learning of complex tasks, but not simple tasks, that persists for up to 180 days
post exposure.1289 In addition, inhalation of jet fuel vapors has been associated with genomic alterations
related to neurotransmitter signaling pathways.904 Also of possible relevance to chronic symptoms
affecting Gulf War veterans, animal studies have demonstrated diverse effects of jet fuel on
immunity367,582-585,782,1691 and on pulmonary function.363,1298,1492,1796
In discussions with the Committee, Dr. Glenn Ritchie, a neurotoxicologist with expertise in neurological
and behavioral effects of jet fuel, suggested that jet fuel exposure, when combined with other Gulf Warrelated exposures, might have unexpected consequences that are relevant to Gulf War illness.1288 This
could include, for example, adverse effects from inhalation of “sand aerosols” formed by the mix of fuel
vapors with fine airborne particulates in the region, or unanticipated effects of other exposure
combinations. Few studies have evaluated interactions between jet fuel and other Gulf War-related
exposures, however. One study identified limited immune alterations (suppressed plaque-forming cells,
decreased delayed hypersensitivity) in mice exposed to a mixture of jet fuel, PB, and DEET. 1187 In
addition, jet fuel has been shown to enhance the absorption of permethrin in a porcine skin model,1295 and
to inhibit metabolism of DEET and carbamate pesticide in a liver cell culture model.391,611
The Institute of Medicine’s Gulf War and Health report on Fuels, Combustion Products, and Propellants
reviewed hundreds of studies related to the human health effects of fuels. The report concluded that there
was insufficient evidence to determine whether there is an association between exposure to uncombusted
fuels and any of the health outcomes evaluated.684 This conclusion relied on results of human studies, but
the studies considered did not include the human studies of neurological effects referred to above.
Studies of Gulf War veterans have provided information on the relationship of veteran-reported exposures
to fuels in theater and rates of chronic symptoms and multisymptom conditions, as shown in Appendix A5. Five studies specifically evaluated the association of skin contact/direct contact with fuels with chronic
symptom complexes in Gulf War veterans.695,1264,1466,1507,1698 All reported significant associations in
analyses that did not consider effects of other exposures in theater, with one suggesting a dose-response
effect. 1466 Two studies found that fuel contact was not associated with chronic symptoms, when effects
of other exposures in theater were considered.695,1507 In addition, four studies specifically assessed
whether veterans who were exposed to fuel sprayed on the ground had higher rates of multisymptom
conditions. Three found no association between fuel sprayed on the ground and chronic symptoms in
analyses that controlled for effects of other exposures,527,695,1507 and one reported no association between
this exposure and defined syndromes in unadjusted analyses.564
In summary, fuel exposures during the Gulf War were widespread. Most Gulf War veterans were likely
exposed to some level of uncombusted petroleum fuels during deployment, predominantly jet fuel, and
subgroups experienced higher-level exposures related to their work activities. There is no information
indicating that fuel exposures associated with Gulf War service differed markedly from those of other
military deployments or service in the U.S., with one exception. That exception is the use of fuels to

Other Exposures in Theater  207

control blowing sand, which may have resulted in high levels of inhalation and dermal exposure for some
individuals, and lower level, repeat inhalation exposures for others. Multiple studies in humans have
suggested that inhalation exposure to uncombusted fuel is associated with acute neurobehavioral effects.
In studies that assessed chronic symptoms or multisymptom conditions in relation to uncombusted fuel
exposure in the Gulf War, however, no significant associations were identified. In addition, the
Committee identified no incident reports or anecdotal reports from veterans indicating that they
developed acute or chronic illnesses that they attributed to exposure to fuels. As a result, the Committee
concludes that, although uncombusted petroleum-based fuels may have the potential to cause health
effects similar to the chronic health problems affecting Gulf War veterans, it is unlikely that they are a
primary cause of Gulf War illness for the majority of affected veterans.
CARC Paint: Exposure to Chemical Agent Resistant Coating in the Gulf War
In addition to the hundreds of thousands of troops mobilized to the Middle East during Operation Desert
Shield, thousands of military vehicles were brought into theater for the war effort. Prior to their arrival,
most military vehicles were painted in the familiar green “woodland” camouflage, necessitating a massive
effort to repaint them a tan color more appropriate for desert warfare.1619 Large painting operations were
set up in theater to paint incoming vehicles prior to the initiation of Operation Desert Storm. After the
ceasefire in February 1991, similar operations repainted many vehicles with woodland camouflage colors
before they were shipped back to the United States.
Because of prewar concerns regarding Iraq’s arsenal of chemical weapons, many of the newly arriving
vehicles were painted with a special compound, chemical agent resistant coating, or CARC paint. CARC
paint is a heavy polyurethane coating that, when applied to tanks and other vehicles, provides protection
from chemical warfare agent penetration, facilitates decontamination from chemical agents, and extends
the service life of the vehicle. CARC contains multiple potentially hazardous compounds, including
toluene, benzene, crystalline silica, and ketones. The compound in CARC considered most hazardous is
hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI), which hardens the paint. In addition, large amounts of potentially
hazardous solvents (paint thinners, cleaners, etc.) were used in painting operations. Exposure to
aerosolized CARC paint, at sufficiently high levels, causes respiratory problems, dizziness, fatigue,
headache, skin rashes, nausea and vomiting, and chemical hypersensitivity.326,1577,1619 CARC is not
considered particularly hazardous after it dries, however, unless it is aerosolized by sanding or chipping,
or heated to high temperatures.
Military occupational safety guidelines require personnel applying CARC paint to use respirators, wear
protective gear that covers all exposed parts of the body including head and hands, and work in properly
ventilated areas.1585,1619 DOD reports indicate that CARC paint was used almost exclusively for Army
vehicles during the Gulf War. Inadequate CARC paint supplies required the Marine Corps to paint their
vehicles with other types of tan paint that did not contain isocyanates. The Air Force and Navy routinely
use other types of paint for their vehicles and aircraft.1619
The most concentrated and sustained exposures to CARC paint occurred among personnel who worked in
painting operations established for mass painting of vehicles. In September of 1990, the first painting
operation involving CARC paint was set up at the Port of Ad Dammam, Saudi Arabia, where painting
was initially done by experienced civilian contractors who had proper protective equipment. Two
additional major CARC spray painting operations were established by the Army at Ad Dammam and Al
Jubayl.1619 These sites were operated by a Florida Army National Guard unit, the 325th Maintenance
Company, which had not been trained in CARC painting operations. The 325th began painting vehicles in
December, 1990. Members of the unit worked around the clock in tents erected to spray paint vehicles.
Reports indicate that they lacked both proper personal protective gear and the required air circulation
equipment. According to a December 1990 memo from a safety officer with the Army Central

208  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Command, personnel began reporting health problems—dizziness, rashes, vomiting, and nausea—within
a very short time.1584 Onsite investigations were conducted at Ad Dammam and Al Jubayl between
December 1990 and June 1991. Painting operations were temporarily shut down at times, due to safety
concerns.1573,1619 Eventually, protective gear and respiratory equipment were provided to members of the
unit but, in some situations, not until many months after painting operations began.1619
A report from DOD’s Special Assistant for Gulf War Illnesses indicates that other, smaller CARC
painting operations were established throughout theater, but that these operated for shorter periods of time
and generally applied CARC using brushes and rollers, rather than by aerosol spray painting.1619 In
addition, CARC was used on a smaller scale by individual units in painting and touching up vehicles.
The DOD report also indicates that their office had received word, in 2000, of medical problems reported
by civilian painting contractors that they attribute to their use of CARC paint during the Gulf War.1619
I served nine months in the Persian Gulf in the 325th Maintenance Combat Support Unit, a
Florida Army National Guard Company. I have chemically induced asthma, experience
allergic reaction to various substances from cigarette smoke to household cleaners. I have
shortness of breath, muscle aches and cramps, reappearing sores, cognitive dysfunction,
numbness in my face and hands, and extreme fatigue. Fourteen months after returning from
the Gulf I was forced to take a medical disability from a job of 11 years and I’m not able to do
the physical labor nor the mental work I did before my Gulf War service.
- 1996 testimony, Gulf War veteran1229

Members of the 325th Maintenance Company continued to report health problems, some of them severe,
after their return from theater. Despite concerns raised by military authorities and Congressional offices,
no systematic evaluation of the health of members of this unit was ever conducted. In addition, the
Committee identified no other reports systematically documenting short or long-term health effects of
personnel who used CARC paint during the war. To find out more about possible long-term health
effects related to CARC exposure, Committee staff obtained information from memos and reports
describing the health of members of the 325th Maintenance Company during and after the war, from
DOD’s report on the use of CARC paint during the war, from testimony presented to Congress and the
Presidential Advisory Committee, from a Congressional office that assisted veterans in the 325th, from
physicians who evaluated and assisted ill veterans in the unit, and from the regional VA office that
processed disability claims for veterans in the unit.
In the years since the war, media reports have continued to describe chronic health problems among
members of the 325th Maintenance Company.279,1772 In 1993, Dr. William Johnson testified to Congress
that personnel he had examined from the 325th had a number of symptoms commonly seen in Gulf War
veterans—headache, dizziness, fatigue, and neurocognitive problems—as well as asthma-like
symptoms.719 An occupational medicine physician who had evaluated about 20 veterans in the unit
reported to DOD that the paint fumes from the Al Jubayl operations had permeated the entire camp,
affecting eating, sleeping, and administrative areas. He indicated that the air was so permeated with
solvent vapor that lights had to be replaced with a type that resisted explosions.1611 Dr. Bruce Pettyjohn
was medical officer for the 325th, and examined many of those in the unit both before and after they
deployed to the Gulf War. He reported that, in addition to the respiratory problems he observed, most of
the ill veterans he examined after the war had memory problems, skin rashes, muscle pain, and
gastrointestinal problems. He told Committee staff that many of the veterans had been seriously ill, but it
had not been possible for him to determine whether their ailments had stemmed from the CARC paint
exposures, other Gulf War-related exposures, or a combination.
Because of the large number of personnel from the 325th who were reporting health problems, claims
representatives from the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) met with members of the unit at their
annual training in Fort Stewart, Georgia, after the unit returned from Saudi Arabia. As of 2000, a DOD
Other Exposures in Theater  209

report indicated that of the approximately 200 members of the 325th that had participated in painting
operations, 163 had been evaluated in DOD or VA Gulf War registries. Findings from registry
examinations of these individuals were never compiled and summarized, according to the DOD report,
due to medical privacy issues.1619 Officials with the VA Regional Office in St. Petersburg, Florida,
recalled that close to 200 disability claims had been filed in connection with CARC exposures by
members of the 325th but that disposition of those claims had not specifically been tracked. No numbers
regarding final claim adjudication were available. News articles and Congressional staffers described
stories of individual veterans who had difficulties getting their medical problems service connected.279,1772
Few epidemiologic studies of Gulf War veterans queried veterans about their use of and exposure to
CARC paint during the war. In the U.S. national study of Gulf War veterans, just over 20 percent of
veterans reported being exposed to CARC paint. A higher proportion of those enrolled in the CCEP and
VA Gulf War Registries—35 to 48 percent—reported CARC exposure.751,839 As shown in Appendix A-1,
CARC exposure was identified as a significant risk factor for multisymptom illness in two of the three
studies that addressed this question,564,752,1466 but neither determined if CARC was an independent risk
factor, controlling for effects of other exposures. Unadjusted analysis of data from the U.S. national study
indicated that veterans who reported CARC exposure had a 5-fold greater risk than unexposed veterans
for the unique neurological symptom complex identified by that study.752
In summary, it appears that some exposure to CARC paint, before or after it dried, was fairly common
among troops serving in the Gulf War and that a limited number of personnel involved in intensive
painting operations were exposed to excessive levels of fresh CARC paint. The greatest concern in
relation to long-term effects of CARC is for personnel who had the highest-level exposure to this toxic
substance, particularly those for whom protective measures were inadequate. Available information
indicates that some individuals in the Florida Army National Guard’s 325th Maintenance Company
suffered acute and chronic health effects consistent with known effects of CARC paint. Without a
systematic evaluation, however, it is not possible to determine the extent of health problems affecting
members of this unit, or if those problems are uniquely the result of CARC exposure or may be related to
other exposures in theater.
The committee concludes that, overall, the limited extent of exposure to fresh CARC paint during the
Gulf War is not consistent with the high prevalence of Gulf War illness, or its pattern of occurrence. It is
therefore unlikely that CARC paint caused or contributed to Gulf War illness for the majority of ill
veterans. However, CARC paint may have had adverse health effects in the limited number of personnel
with more intensive and sustained exposure.
Contaminated Food and Water in the Gulf War
Rapid deployment of American military personnel to the Middle East in the fall of 1991 presented many
logistical challenges, including those related to providing living accommodations and safe food and water
supplies for hundreds of thousands of arriving troops. In the early months of the troop buildup, canned
and frozen food and prepackaged meals were shipped from the U.S. and were supplemented with fresh
produce and dairy products obtained from countries in the region.662 Throughout the deployment period,
potable water was obtained from reverse-osmosis purification units run by the U.S. military, from local
commercial bottled water suppliers, and from local municipal systems that supplied chlorinated water.662
Despite extensive efforts by the military to provide safe food and water to the troops, widespread
outbreaks of diarrheal disease occurred in the early months of Operation Desert Shield. In September
1991 this posed a serious threat, when over 50 percent of troops surveyed in theater reported diarrheal
episodes and 20 percent reported they had been temporarily unable to perform their duties due to
diarrhea.662 The primary pathogens identified were e. coli and shigella species, and the primary source of

210  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

contamination in those months was believed to be the produce supplied by regional countries, since rates
of diarrheal diseases dropped after these items were banned in late September. 664 Diarrheal diseases
continued to occur, at reduced rates, throughout the deployment period. Additional outbreaks were
reported to occur most commonly in relation to interpersonal transmission of enteropathogens in field
units and when food was supplied or prepared by foreign food handlers.664
In addition, there were difficulties obtaining sufficient supplies of potable water and some units had to
rely on water supplied by host nations, delivered in tanker trucks.1618 Policy at the time allowed for the
use of petroleum transport tankers to carry drinking water, once the tanks had been superchlorinated and
thoroughly flushed.1618 Although water supplies were regularly monitored by U.S. personnel, testing
results were typically not available for 18-24 hours.1618 The Department of Defense’s report on water use
during the Gulf War also indicates that there were occasions when non-potable water was used for
drinking and food preparation.1618 In addition, personnel located close to the spewing and burning oil
wells experienced another source of food and water contamination resulting from the “oil rain.” Troops
in those areas described being completely soaked with oil and having their food and water taste like
oil.1688
Exposure to contaminated food and water during deployment appears to have been fairly widespread.
Twenty-one percent of veterans in the CCEP reported eating contaminated food and 20 percent indicated
they had bathed in contaminated water during deployment.839 In addition, 30 percent of veterans in the
U.S. National Study of Gulf War era veterans indicated they had eaten food contaminated with oil or
smoke.751 Overall, 75 percent of Gulf War veterans said they ate food and 34 percent drank water that
had not been supplied by the military.751,988
Some enteric pathogens have the potential to cause chronic illness,268,970 but reports from field medical
units indicate that most diarrheal episodes and outbreaks of gastroenteritis during deployment were brief
and resolved within days.662 Still, persistent digestive disturbances, including chronic diarrhea, are
frequently reported problems among ill Gulf War veterans.370,393,695,751,824,1451,1565
Several epidemiologic studies have evaluated rates of chronic symptoms and multisymptom illness in
relation to veterans’ reports of exposure to contaminated food and water in theater (Appendix A-3). In
unadjusted analyses, eating food contaminated with petroleum or oil was associated with an elevated risk
for multisymptom illness in two studies.564,752 This was a particularly strong risk factor in the U.S.
national study, in which veterans who reported eating food contaminated with oil had a 10-fold higher
rate of the unique neurological symptom complex defined in that study.752 These data come from
unadjusted analyses, however, and it is not possible to determine whether this excess risk resulted from
ingestion of the oil-contaminated food or if eating oil-contaminated food may reflect, more generally, risk
resulting from being in close proximity to the spewing oil wells. In addition, two studies, after adjusting
for effects of multiple exposures, reported that bathing in or drinking contaminated water was a
significant risk factor for chronic symptomatic illness.527,1507 Among Danish veterans, this association
was with water contaminated with oil or fumes, so may have reflected proximity to the oil well fires.
In summary, exposure to contaminated food and water appears to have been fairly common during Gulf
War deployment, and acute diarrheal diseases commonly occurred among Gulf War personnel.
Relatively little clear information is available concerning their association with chronic symptomatic
illness in Gulf War veterans, however. It is also not known if exposure to contaminated food and water
was more or less common during the Gulf War than in other military deployments to the region. Overall,
it appears unlikely that food and water contamination were major causes of Gulf War illness for most ill
veterans.

Other Exposures in Theater  211

Other Potential Hazards Encountered by Military Personnel in the Gulf War
A variety of additional exposures have been suggested as possible contributors to the development of
chronic symptoms affecting Gulf War veterans. These include sources of electromagnetic radiation in
theater, industrial pollution, exposure to the decontaminating agent DS2, and exposure to hydraulic fluids,
among others. Almost no information is available concerning the extent of exposure to these substances,
or their likely health effects. The Committee therefore has no basis on which to draw conclusions
regarding any health effects potentially attributable to these exposures, although most were likely to have
been encountered by a limited number of Gulf War veterans. They are mentioned here, in brief, for the
sake of completeness and to indicate the Committee’s awareness of veterans’ concerns regarding these
exposures.
Sources of electromagnetic radiation. Veterans have expressed concern about possible adverse
effects of electromagnetic radiation for individuals who may have had particularly high exposure during
the war. Several sources have been described. These include radio and microwaves in locations at which
high-level communications towers and equipment were located. Veterans have also indicated that new
weapons systems that utilized energy beams, while not in wide use, were being tested during the 1991
Gulf War.1269
There has been extensive research exploring possible adverse effects of exposure to electromagnetic
radiation, of various types, in other settings. While individual studies have reported that exposure to radio
waves, microwaves, and other types of electromagnetic radiation may be associated with increased risk of
cancers and other health outcomes, findings have been equivocal, and no clear consensus has emerged
concerning long-term effects of higher-level exposures.401,498 Studies have not specifically assessed
adverse effects of short term, concentrated exposure to radiation frequencies emitted by microwave
communications equipment comparable to those that may have been encountered by military personnel
during the Gulf War.
Between 20 and 30 percent of U.S. veterans reported being exposed to “microwaves” in the U.S. National
Survey and federal registry programs,751,1505,1651 but the sources of those exposures were not queried or
identified. In unadjusted analyses, exposure to “ionizing or non-ionizing radiation” was associated with
higher rates of cognitive and fibromyalgia symptoms in Iowa veterans, but not in Canadian veterans.511,692
No government documents or veteran reports were identified that provide additional information
concerning individuals potentially exposed to electromagnetic radiation during the Gulf War in
connection with the testing or use of energy weapons.
Sources of industrial pollution. During the Gulf War, U.S. troops were frequently stationed in
industrial areas where operating chemical plants and refineries were located. Government reports have
routinely identified industrial pollution as a source of airborne particulates and other contaminants during
the Gulf War.1625 Almost no information is available, however, about the specific types of pollution in
those areas or the extent of exposures to contaminants associated with local industry.
There are incident reports describing chemical exposures of unknown type and origin, however, the best
known of which is the “purple T-shirt event.” On March 19, 1991, Navy Seabees camped in an industrial
sector of Al Jubayl, in northern Saudi Arabia, described being enveloped in a cloud of noxious fumes that
contained a purple colored dust. They experienced symptoms that included burning in their eyes, noses,
and throats, nosebleeds, and choking. At the same time, their brown T-shirts turned purple, as did
portions of their combat boots. Some of the soldiers sought medical attention, and their symptoms are
reported to have resolved in a short time. Despite a later environmental hazard investigation, and
chemical testing of some of the affected shirts, no specific chemical or source of the fumes was identified.
Military investigators have generally concluded that the unknown chemical likely came from an
unidentified incident at one of the industrial plants located near the camp.1627

212  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Chemical decontaminating agent. Decontamination Solution 2, or DS2, is a solution used by the
military to decontaminate vehicles following exposure to chemical warfare agents. This solution contains
ethylene glycolmonomethyl ether (2ME), a type of solvent widely used in industry that has been
associated with adverse reproductive and hematological effects.1615,1690 Although it is known that DS2 was
used during the Gulf War,675 no documentation is available concerning the extent of its use. The
Committee identified only one report of an incident involving the use of DS2 during the Gulf War, in
which a group of soldiers were said to have developed rashes after exposure.1690
Airplane hydraulic fluid. In recent years, studies have suggested that inhalation exposure to fumes
produced by hydraulic fluids used in aircraft may have adverse neurological effects. Airline crew
members flying certain aircraft have reported nonspecific symptoms such as headache, cognitive
impairment, and fatigue that some have attributed to fumes from hydraulic fluid and engine oil
leaks.287,1794 Several types of hydraulic fluid were used in military aircraft during the Gulf War, some of
which contained tricresyl phosphates (TCPs),978 organophosphate esters that have been associated with
neurotoxic effects.1067,1570 However, no information is available on the extent of exposure to these
substances during the Gulf War, or on adverse effects potentially attributable to them. One U.S. Gulf
War study, in unadjusted analyses, found that veterans whose work activities during the war included
cleaning “hydraulic leaks” had an elevated rate of Gulf War illness.1466
Summary. Other exposures in theater. The Committee reviewed information on a variety of Gulf
War exposures that have the potential to cause adverse effects but for which there is relatively little
information concerning individual exposures and/or associations with Gulf War illness. This includes
sand/particulates in theater, tent heaters, solvents, jet fuel, CARC paint, and contaminated food and water.
Several of these exposures are unlikely to have been primary causes of Gulf War illness for the majority
of ill veterans based on what is known about their distribution during deployment. Gulf War illness
affects between 25 and 30 percent of those who served in the 1990-1991 Gulf War, and occurs in a
nonrandom distribution pattern—that is, its prevalence differs by branch of service and by location in
theater. Primary causes of Gulf War illness, therefore, would have to have been widespread enough to
affect a substantial number of individuals, but not equally distributed in all sectors of theater. This
suggests that exposures such as solvents, fuels, and particulates, encountered throughout theater by most
units, are unlikely candidates as primary causal factors in Gulf War illness. It also suggests that freshly
sprayed CARC paint, encountered by relatively few veterans in very limited areas, is also an unlikely
cause of Gulf War illness for most veterans. These observations are generally supported by
epidemiologic studies that have assessed rates of multisymptom illness in relation to these exposures.
Descriptive reports during and after the war, however, indicates that some military personnel involved in
intensive CARC painting operations, particularly those who had inadequate training and protective
equipment, have suffered chronic health problems since the war. In different individuals these problems
have resembled Gulf War illness, adverse consequences of CARC exposure, or both. Systematicallycollected information is needed to understand the degree to which these individuals have been affected by
persistent adverse effects of CARC or other Gulf War-related exposures.
Less commonly-encountered exposures such as these raise questions about the potential for various
substances to have contributed to Gulf War illness in some as-yet-unknown way, as part of a “cocktail”
effect resulting from combinations of exposures. As described here in relation to particulates, scientists
are just beginning to identify neurotoxic effects of substances not previously associated with diagnosed
neurological diseases. Little is currently known about how some of these exposures, particularly when
combined with other neurotoxic substances, might contribute to adverse effects that are currently
unknown.

Other Exposures in Theater  213

Recommendations
A number of exposures in theater are unlikely to have been primary causes of Gulf War illness in the
majority of ill veterans, but may have contributed to illness risk in identifiable subsets of Gulf War
veterans. To better understand the potential contributions of two of these exposures, CARC paint and
unvented tent heaters, the Committee recommends the following:
 Conduct an epidemiologic investigation to determine if personnel who served with the Army
National Guard’s 325th Maintenance Company in the Gulf War suffer excess health problems in
comparison to nondeployed personnel, to describe the nature of any excess problems, and to
evaluate the degree to which problems are associated with veterans’ exposure to CARC during
deployment, alone or in combination with other Gulf War exposures.
 In existing and future epidemiologic studies of Gulf War veterans, analyze data collected relating
to exposure to unvented tent heaters during the Gulf War using analytic methods that control for
the effects of other exposures in theater, to determine whether tent heaters contributed to the risk of
Gulf War illness, particularly among Army veterans in theater during winter months.

214  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Synthesis: What the Weight of Evidence Tells Us
About the Causes of Gulf War Illness
The 1990-1991 Gulf War was unique in many respects. Although the combat period was brief, military
personnel encountered a variable mix of chemical, biological, psychological, and physical exposures
during deployment. For many years, complexities related both to what occurred in theater and the
multisymptom illness resulting from the war have given rise to widespread uncertainty and debate.
Different deployment-related factors have been put forward by individuals from different sectors—
government officials, veterans, clinicians, scientists, and members of the public—as the cause or most
important cause of Gulf War illness. As viewed through different lenses, detailed and sometimes
persuasive cases have been made that different exposures—stress, oil well fires, depleted uranium,
vaccines, nerve agents—appeared, at least in theory, to be the most likely cause of Gulf War illness.
Seventeen years after the war, the extensive body of scientific research on the health of Gulf War veterans
and the large number of government investigations related to exposures in theater permit a more in-depth,
evidence-based evaluation. Earlier observers have suggested that it might not be possible to determine
the cause of Gulf War illness so many years after the war. Based on its broad review of available
information, however, the Committee found that evidence of different types from different sectors points
consistently to a limited number of factors as the most prominent and likely causes of Gulf War illness.
The Committee believes it is extremely important to understand why Gulf War veterans became ill.
Veterans and their healthcare providers need this information to inform appropriate treatment strategies.
Scientists need this information to design research studies that most accurately characterize pathological
processes, tests, and treatments for Gulf War illness. Government officials need this information to
improve programs that care for ill Gulf War veterans and to prevent similar problems in the future.
Seventeen years after the Gulf War, answers to the question of what caused Gulf War illness are long
overdue.
Scientific determination of disease causality is neither routine nor straightforward. There is no general
agreement, from a scientific perspective, on how best to characterize or determine disease causation,
especially when considering links between chronic disease and environmental factors.1321 Unlike
infectious disease, there are no accepted criteria, like Koch’s postulates, used to judge if an
exposure/disease causal relationship exists. Understanding such relationships in human populations is
often complicated by factors such as the potential for multiple “causes” to contribute to disease,
uncertainties related to exposure levels, latency of observable clinical effects, and variability in individual
susceptibility to hazardous exposures. Multiple factors must be considered and weighed in making
scientific judgments about disease causation, based on a variety of indicators that have been suggested as
important.609,1321,1516 These typically include the overall consistency of epidemiologic findings relating an
exposure to a disease, the biological plausibility of the association, the presence of a dose/response effect,
and whether the exposure/illness link is consistent with other knowledge in the field.
The Committee considered factors such as these in reviewing the broad spectrum of evidence related to
each of the putative risk factors for Gulf War illness. For each exposure topic, the Committee
systematically considered three general types of information: (1) what was known about the extent and
patterns of the exposure in theater, (2) what was known, overall, about adverse effects of the exposure
from human and animal studies, and (3) what studies of Gulf War veterans have determined about
associations between the exposure and Gulf War illness. Available information in all three categories was
reviewed in a similar way for the different wartime experiences and exposures of interest. For example,
evidence related to psychological stressors as a possible cause of Gulf War illness was considered in the
same way as evidence related to exposures such as depleted uranium and oil well fires. The types and
strength of evidence in each area were then compared, to allow the Committee to determine where

What the Weight of Evidence Tells Us About the Causes of Gulf War Illness  215

evidence of an association was strongest, where there appeared to be no association, and where there was
insufficient information to support firm conclusions.
General Patterns of Exposure in the Gulf War
Gulf War illness, that is, the complex of chronic symptoms consistently found at excess rates in Gulf War
veterans, affects between 25 and 32 percent of veterans who served in the 1990-1991 Gulf War. Its
primary cause or causes would therefore be expected to have been commonly encountered by Gulf War
personnel during deployment. General insights about the causes of Gulf War illness might also be
provided by comparing what is known about the extent and patterns of exposures during the 1990-1991
Gulf War with the distribution of Gulf War illness in different veteran subgroups. Gulf War illness has
been shown to affect ground troops, particularly Army personnel, at significantly higher rates than other
personnel in theater, and to be most prominent among troops who served in forward areas. In addition, a
similar pattern of widespread multisymptom illness, unexplained by identifiable medical or psychiatric
diagnoses, has not been reported in veterans who served in Bosnia in the 1990s or in personnel returning
from current conflicts in the Middle East. This suggests that insights into the cause or causes of Gulf War
illness might also be provided by comparing the circumstances and exposures of the 1990-1991 Gulf War
with those of more recent deployments.
Overall, it would generally be expected that the most prominent etiologic factors for Gulf War illness
should be widespread enough to have affected a large number of troops during the 1990-1991 Gulf War,
and most frequently experienced by ground troops, particularly those serving in forward areas. And,
based on currently available evidence, the most prominent causes of Gulf War illness should also have
been widespread in the 1990-1991 Gulf War, but not in current Middle East deployments. Information of
this type, summarizing key aspects of what is known about general patterns of Gulf War exposures, is
provided in Table 1.
General information on exposure patterns in the 1990-1991 Gulf War indicates that a number of
exposures were widespread during Gulf War deployment, and most prominent among ground troops who
were in forward locations at some time during the war. These include psychological stressors, oil well
fire smoke, depleted uranium (DU), use of pyridostigmine bromide (PB) pills, and pesticide use. Two of
these, psychological stressors and DU, have also been prominent among personnel serving in Operations
Iraqi Freedom (OIF) and Enduring Freedom (OEF), although reports have not identified a widespread
Gulf War illness-type problem in veterans of those conflicts. Major vaccine exposures of interest do not
generally distinguish the Gulf War from current conflicts, since all personnel serving in recent
deployments were to have received the six-shot anthrax vaccine series, and multiple other vaccines for
deployment. Anthrax vaccine was administered to a lower proportion of 1990-1991 Gulf War troops, and
preferentially given to those in fixed locations in support areas during the war.
Overall, there is sufficient information on exposure patterns in theater to indicate that two exposures of
interest are generally compatible with what is known about the distribution of Gulf War illness in Gulf
War veterans. Exposure to oil well fire smoke and the use of PB pills were both widely experienced,
most prominently in forward areas of theater and by ground troops. Neither have affected troops in
current Middle East conflicts to a significant extent, although isolated exposures might have occurred.
The general patterns summarized in Table 1 also suggest that four other exposures of interest are not
“good fits” with the patterns in which Gulf War illness affects veterans. These include the fine, blowing
sand in the region, exhaust from tent heaters, fuel exposures, and freshly-applied chemical agent resistant
coating (CARC) paint. Exposures to sand and military fuels were ubiquitous throughout the Gulf War

216  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Table 1. General Patterns of Exposures in the 1990-1991 Gulf War
and Current Middle East Deployments

Was Gulf War exposure
widespread, and most
prominent among ground
troops in forward areas?

Was exposure more
prominent in the 1990-1991
Gulf War than in current
Middle East deployments?

Veterans’ Experiences and Exposures in Theater
Pyridostigmine bromide

Yes

Pesticides

Yes

Psychological stressors

Yes

Chemical weapons

Yes
No
Yes

Oil well fires

Yes

Yes

Number of vaccines

No

No

Anthrax vaccine

No

No

Tent heater exhaust

No

Sand/particulates

No

No

Depleted uranium

Yes

No

Solvents

No

No

Fuel exposures

No

No

CARC paint

No

Abbreviation: CARC = freshly applied chemical agent resistant coating
Note: Blank cells indicate that available information is insufficient to characterize pattern of interest.

theater, and would be generally similar in the current Iraq War. The most intensive exposures to freshlyapplied CARC paint in the 1990-1991 Gulf War occurred in limited areas, at vehicle spray painting
operations located in Saudi Arabia.
There is insufficient evidence on patterns of exposure to clearly indicate whether two Gulf War exposures
of concern—chemical agents and pesticides—are supported by this type of general analysis. Although
DOD models indicate that about 100,000 troops were potentially exposed to low levels of nerve agents in
relation to munitions demolitions at Khamisiyah, Iraq, in 1991, the full extent and locations of low-level
chemical weapons exposures during the 1991 Gulf War is unclear. Concern about chemical weapons
exposures was very prominent early in the current Iraq War, but there have been no indications that a
substantial number of troops were exposed to chemical agents in current Middle East deployments. There
is also no detailed information available as yet on patterns of pesticide use in current deployments.
Several pesticide products of concern during the 1990-1991 Gulf War are no longer used by the military,
however, and there are multiple indications that, overall, pesticides have been used at lower levels in
current deployments, in keeping with current military pest control policies.
It is important to emphasize that this type of general assessment can provide only preliminary indications
of which exposure patterns are consistent with exposures likely to have been most prominently associated
with Gulf War illness. Firm conclusions cannot be based on this type of general assessment for a number
What the Weight of Evidence Tells Us About the Causes of Gulf War Illness  217

of reasons, including the well-recognized limitations of ecological inferences of this type.811 However,
this information can help to narrow the broad field of exposures in question, particularly by identifying
exposures that are unlikely to have been primary causes of Gulf War illness. Such insights can add to an
overall assessment of evidence, when considered with the more detailed types of information provided by
research on biological effects of exposures in humans and animals, as well as epidemiologic and clinical
studies of Gulf War veterans.
General Information on Health Effects of Exposures
As detailed in earlier sections of the report, a large number of diverse types of research studies have
provided information on health and biological effects of many of the exposures associated with Gulf War
service. These include studies of human populations exposed to psychological stressors and chemical
hazards. It also includes multiple types of laboratory studies that have evaluated biological effects of
these exposures in animals. The Committee reviewed research of these types to determine what insights
they provide concerning likely causes of Gulf War illness.
Evidence from animal studies evaluating biological effects of exposures. There is no clear
animal model for Gulf war illness, in part because there are not objective measures to determine if
animals experience many of the symptoms associated with Gulf War illness. As described in previous
sections, however, a large number of studies have evaluated effects of Gulf War-related exposures in
animals, and have identified effects that are compatible with Gulf War illness-type symptoms. These
include adverse effects on brain structure and neurobiological measures, as well as effects on memory and
behavior. Most such studies have evaluated effects in animals over relatively brief time periods. For
example, animal studies have demonstrated that stressors can produce short-term changes in behavior and
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis measures. Little information is available, however, about the
potential for time-limited stressors to produce adverse effects that persist for an extended period in adult
animals.
Animal studies have demonstrated persistent neurological effects of exposure to pyridostigmine bromide,
fuels, solvents, and receipt of multiple vaccines that include neurobehavioral effects and changes in brain
waves, neurotransmitters, and sleep patterns. Low-level sarin exposures have also been found to have
persistent effects on the brain and behavior, including EEG effects and alterations in cholinergic receptors
in brain areas associated with learning and memory, as well as long-term effects on HPA parameters and
autonomic function. In addition, research in animal models indicates that different classes of pesticides
used during the Gulf War can have long-term effects on the brain, including effects on learning and
behavior. Repeat, low level exposures to organophosphate pesticides have been shown to have persistent
effects that differ from effects of single exposures, even at higher dosage levels.
Animal studies have also demonstrated that soluble forms of DU, when ingested or injected, and DU
pellets implanted under the skin can have effects on the brain and behavior. Little information is
available, however, concerning persistent central effects of short-term DU exposure, in forms and dosages
most commonly encountered by Gulf War veterans. There is also little information from animal studies
to indicate whether time-limited exposure to stressors, smoke from oil well fires, anthrax vaccine, sand,
tent heaters, or CARC paint produce persistent effects that are compatible with symptoms associated with
Gulf War illness.
Research in animal models has also identified significant neurological effects resulting from different
combinations of neurotoxicant exposures associated with the Gulf War—organophosphate pesticides,
permethrin, DEET, PB, and low-level sarin—and from combinations of these exposures with stress.
Diverse findings have been reported in relation to chemical absorption, metabolism, and biological
effects of mixtures of these neurotoxicants, effects that differ from those of single exposures.

218  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

Evidence from studies evaluating effects of occupational and environmental exposures
in human populations. An extensive number of research studies have described human health effects
of many of the types of exposures encountered by military personnel in the Gulf War. Relatively few,
however, have evaluated rates of persistent symptoms and symptom complexes in relation to these
exposures. As catalogued in some detail in the Institute of Medicine’s Gulf War and Health series of
reports, research on humans occupationally exposed to diverse types of chemical exposures such as
petroleum exhaust or uranium dust have primarily evaluated rates of cancers and limited other diagnosed
conditions. Therefore, general research on the effects of Gulf War-related exposures in human
populations provides only limited insights concerning possible links between exposures and persistent
symptomatic illness.
The Committee identified human population studies that evaluated chronic symptoms and symptom
complexes in relation to only three types of chemical exposures associated with Gulf War service:
pesticides, nerve agents, and organic solvents. Community studies have identified significant associations
between low level exposure to agricultural pesticides and increased rates of symptoms similar to those of
Gulf War illness—chronic cognitive problems, headaches, gastrointestinal problems, sleep disturbances,
and mood alterations. Persistent symptoms similar to those of Gulf War illness have also been described
in occupational studies of British sheep farmers regularly exposed to organophosphate sheep dip, and in
other pesticide-exposed workers. In both community and occupational settings, chronic symptoms of this
type have been reported in individuals with no history of pesticide poisoning, generally in relation to lowlevel exposures over a prolonged period. Long-term follow up of individuals exposed to sarin in terrorist
attacks in Japan in the 1990s also indicates that some individuals developed persistent symptoms, balance
irregularities, neurocognitive decrements, and alterations in brain structure that parallel those observed in
Gulf War veterans. Individuals evaluated in these studies, however, had higher-level sarin exposures than
those generally believed to be associated with Gulf War service.
In addition, chronic neurocognitive and mood symptoms have been described in workers occupationally
exposed to organic solvents. Acute neurological, respiratory, and skin symptoms have also been reported
in relation to fuel exposures, but studies have not reported on chronic symptomatic outcomes. No studies
were identified that provide information on persistent symptoms or symptom complexes in relation to
other types of Gulf War exposures. That is, human studies have not provided information on chronic
symptomatic illness, unrelated to diagnosed conditions, that persists for many years after time-limited
exposure to psychological stressors, petroleum smoke, uranium dust, vaccines, PB, sand and particulates,
exhaust from tent heaters, or CARC paint.
In summary, studies in animal models have demonstrated delayed or persistent neurological effects
following short-term exposure to a number of compounds associated with Gulf War service—PB, lowlevel sarin, pesticides, fuels and solvents, and multiple vaccines—effects that could plausibly relate to
symptoms of Gulf War illness. Animal studies also indicate that some combinations of neurotoxicant
exposures, at levels comparable to those experienced by Gulf War veterans, can produce neurological
effects that differ from those of individual exposures. Research in human populations indicates that lowlevel exposure to pesticides, sublethal exposure to sarin, and exposure to organic solvents can be
associated with chronic symptoms and symptom complexes similar to those of Gulf War illness. These
chronic symptom complexes develop, in some cases, after exposure to neurotoxicants at levels that do not
cause acute symptoms.
Overall, research in animal models has provided information essential for understanding the biological
effects of Gulf War exposures. Recent studies that have identified persistent effects of low level
exposures have been especially useful in this regard. General research on health effects of exposures in
human populations has also been important in identifying exposed populations in whom elevated rates of
persistent symptoms similar to those of Gulf War illness have been reported. Although both types of
research provide valuable insights related to the cause or causes of Gulf War illness, application of these

What the Weight of Evidence Tells Us About the Causes of Gulf War Illness  219

findings to the Gulf War experience is limited in some respects. It is important, therefore, that general
research findings related to biological and health effects of Gulf War exposures be considered in the
context of what is known about the extent and patterns of exposures during the Gulf War, as well as
associations between Gulf War exposures and Gulf War illness identified in studies of Gulf War veterans.
Evidence from Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Although informative, research in animal models and general findings from studies of human populations
cannot precisely characterize the impact of Gulf War exposures on military personnel who served in the
1990-1991 Gulf War. Associations between Gulf War illness and the diverse psychological, biological,
and chemical exposures experienced during Gulf War deployment, at different levels and in different
combinations, can only be directly evaluated in Gulf War veterans themselves. In light of the complex
exposure scenario of the Gulf War, understanding the cause or causes of Gulf War illness requires careful
consideration of findings from research on Gulf War veterans. The Committee reviewed, in detail, results
from the large number of studies that have evaluated associations between chronic symptomatic illness in
Gulf War veterans and experiences and exposures during the Gulf War. These include epidemiologic
studies that have assessed risk factors for multisymptom illness in Gulf War veterans, as well as clinical
studies that have evaluated measurable health outcomes in relation to Gulf War exposures.
Major findings from Gulf War epidemiologic studies. As detailed in previous sections of the
report, epidemiologic studies have evaluated many possible risk factors for Gulf War illness. These have
included hundreds of evaluations of persistent symptoms and multisymptom illness, variously defined, in
relation to numerous exposures assessed by diverse variables. Exposure-illness associations have been
assessed in many different populations of Gulf War veterans, with some veteran groups evaluated by
multiple studies. Appendix A provides detailed findings from these studies, listed by type of exposure.
For example, identified associations between symptomatic illness and variables related to chemical agents
(e.g., being put on chemical alert, DOD-modeled proximity to the Khamisiyah demolitions) are listed
together in a single table, Appendix A-2.
In reviewing epidemiologic findings related to risk factors for Gulf War illness, the Committee sought to
determine the overall strength of evidence related to each exposure of interest. This required an
assessment of whether Gulf War epidemiologic studies consistently indicated that an exposure was or was
not significantly associated with symptomatic illness in Gulf War veterans, and whether there was
evidence of a dose/response relationship. Table 2 summarizes findings from all epidemiologic studies
that evaluated associations between Gulf War exposures and multisymptom illness in Gulf War veterans.
As shown, the table identifies both the number of different Gulf War veteran populations in which each
type of exposure was assessed, and the number of populations in which each exposure was significantly
associated with symptomatic illness. Detailed results for all exposure variables are provided in Appendix
A. For purposes of the summary in Table 2, findings related to each type of exposure in a given veteran
population were counted only once. For example, some studies evaluated many different psychological
stressors as risk factors for symptomatic illness in a given population of Gulf War veterans. Table 2
reports the number of different Gulf War veteran populations in which at least one psychological stressor
was significantly associated with symptomatic illness.
Consistency of associations between exposures in theater and Gulf War illness. Epidemiologic
studies have evaluated an extensive number of risk factors for Gulf War illness in numerous Gulf War
veteran populations. As previously described, epidemiologic studies that reported only results of
preliminary analyses—that is, analyses that did not adjust for confounding effects of multiple
exposures—were not useful in identifying risk factors for Gulf War illness. As shown in Table 2,
preliminary analyses of this type identified nearly all Gulf War exposures as significant risk factors for
Gulf War illness in all Gulf War veteran populations. Illogical findings of this type are an expected result

220  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

of confounding in epidemiologic research, that is, the result of confusing the effects of multiple exposures
with one another. For example, most Gulf War personnel who served in combat also took PB pills and
used personal pesticides. In assessing exposure-illness associations, effects of serving in combat would
be “mixed in” with, or confounded by, the effects of PB and pesticides, unless effects of each exposure
are assessed independently, while controlling for the effects of other exposures.
Given the large number of exposures in theater and the high degree of correlation among exposures,
epidemiologic studies that did not control for the confounding effects of multiple wartime exposures
invariably produced results that were not helpful, and even misleading, for determining the causes of Gulf
War illness. As detailed in Appendix A, the magnitude of associations identified by these preliminary
analyses also provided little basis for distinguishing between effects of Gulf War exposures. These
measures, typically odds ratios (OR) or risk ratios (RR), reflect the degree of increased illness risk
associated with a given exposure. Individual OR and RR values for different exposures varied in
different studies, but median values across studies were generally similar. For the majority of Gulf War
exposures, median values indicated a three-to-four times greater risk for exposed, compared to unexposed
personnel, in unadjusted analyses. Anthrax vaccine was consistently the weakest of identified risk factors
in these analyses. That is, Gulf War illness risk for veterans who reported receiving the anthrax vaccine
was usually less than twice that of veterans who did not recall receiving the vaccine, in unadjusted
analyses.
In contrast, Gulf War epidemiologic studies that controlled for confounding effects of multiple wartime
exposures provided clear distinctions between the many Gulf War exposures of interest. Across all
studies that adjusted for effects of multiple exposures, only two exposures—the use of pyridostigmine
bromide (PB) pills and the use of pesticides—were consistently identified as significant risk factors for
Gulf War illness. As shown in Table 2, use of PB was significantly associated with multisymptom illness
in six of six Gulf War veteran populations, and pesticide use was significantly associated with
multisymptom illness in five of six veteran populations, in studies that controlled for effects of other
wartime exposures.
Epidemiologic studies that controlled for effects of multiple exposures also identified factors that were
not significantly associated with Gulf War illness. The largest number of risk factor variables assessed in
Gulf War epidemiologic studies related to diverse psychological stressors during deployment. These
included experiences that may have been extremely traumatic, (e.g. seeing soldiers maimed or killed),
experiences associated with prolonged and intense stress (e.g., being in combat), and other types of
psychological stressors not directly related to combat (e.g., change in marital status).
Results of adjusted analyses consistently indicated that psychological stressors during deployment were
not significantly associated with Gulf War illness. Psychological stressor variables were assessed in
seven different Gulf War veteran populations, using analyses that controlled for effects of other wartime
exposures. As shown in Table 2, no stress-related variables were identified as significant risk factors for
multisymptom illness in six of the seven Gulf War populations, after controlling for effects of deployment
exposures. In addition, two of three studies that evaluated effects of sand exposures, and two studies that
evaluated fuel exposures found they were not significant risk factors for Gulf War illness, after adjusting
for effects of other exposures.
Epidemiologic findings related to exposure to smoke from oil well fires and possible exposure to
chemical agents were not consistent, as indicated in Table 2. Oil fire smoke was identified as a
significant risk factor for Gulf War illness by two of four studies that controlled for effects of other
deployment exposures. In three of five populations, variables potentially indicative of exposure to
chemical agents (e.g. hearing chemical alarms, exposure to nerve gas), were found to be significant risk
factors for Gulf War illness, after adjusting for effects of other exposures. For several other deployment

What the Weight of Evidence Tells Us About the Causes of Gulf War Illness  221

Table 2. Gulf War Illness in Relation to Experiences and Exposures During the 1990-1991 Gulf War:
Summary of Evidence from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

Epidemiologic Studies of Gulf War Veterans:
Association of Deployment Exposures With Multisymptom Illness
Preliminary Analyses*
(no controls for other exposures)
GWV populations in GWV populations in
which association
which association
was assessed a
was sign.b

Adjusted Analyses*
(controlling for effects of other exposures)
GWV populations in GWV populations in
which association which association
was assessed a
was sign.b

Doseresponse effect
identified?

Clinical Evaluations of Gulf War Veterans:
Association of Deployment Exposures
with Measured Clinical Outcomes

Pyridostigmine bromide

10

9

6

6

Yes

associated with sign. neurocognitive and HPA
differences in Gulf War veterans

Pesticides

10

10

6

5

Yes

associated with sign. neurocognitive and HPA
differences in Gulf War veterans

Psychological stressors

14

13

7

1

Chemical weapons

16

13

5

3

Oil well fires

9

8

4

2

Yes

Number of vaccines

2

2

1

1

Yes

Anthrax vaccine

5

5

2

1

Tent heater exhaust

5

4

2

1

Sand/particulates

3

3

3

1

Depleted uranium

5

3

1

0

Solvents

4

4

1

0

Fuel exposures

5

4

2

0

CARC paint

3

2

0

0

associated with sign. neuroimaging and
neurocognitive differences in Gulf War veterans

Abbreviations: GWV = Gulf War veterans, sign. = statistically significant, HPA = hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, CARC = chemical agent resistant coating
Notes: *Detailed results for all exposure variables are provided in Appendix A; Preliminary analyses refer to methods that did not adjust for effects of other exposures during deployment.
a Indicates total number of Gulf War veteran populations in which an association of multisymptom illness with the exposure of interest was evaluated
b Indicates number of Gulf War veteran populations in which one or more variables reflecting the exposure of interest was sign. associated with multisymptom illness

exposures, there was insufficient information from Gulf War epidemiologic studies to assess their
contributions as independent risk factors for Gulf War illness. These included DU, vaccines, exhaust
from tent heaters, and CARC paint.
Evidence of dose-response effects in relation to Gulf War illness. A parameter commonly used to
evaluate the likelihood of a causal relationship between an exposure and a health outcome is whether
there is evidence of a dose-response pattern of association. This refers to a graded relationship between
increasing levels of exposure and greater degrees of illness risk or severity. As indicated in Table 2, Gulf
War epidemiologic studies have reported dose-response associations between multisymptom illness and
several deployment exposures. Dose-response effects have been identified in relation to PB use, pesticide
use, oil well fires, and the number of vaccines received, both by Gulf War studies that controlled for
effects of confounding by other exposures, and by studies that did not.
A dose-response pattern of association between PB and Gulf War multisymptom illness has been
identified by multiple studies, both in relation to the number of days PB was used, and the total number of
pills taken during deployment.241,788,789,938,1466,1804 Dose-response effects associated with pesticide use
have also been identified, both in relation to the number of days that pesticides were used241 and the
amount of DEET used.564 In addition, several studies provided indications that veterans who were closest
to the Kuwaiti oil well fires, or were exposed to oil fire smoke for longer periods of time, have higher
rates of symptomatic illness than veterans with less exposure.241,564,752,1466,1687 A dose-response effect is
also reflected in the observed association between Gulf War illness and the number of vaccines received
for deployment.241,641,788,789,1698
Association of Gulf War exposures with clinical findings in Gulf War veterans. In addition
to epidemiologic research on risk factors for multisymptom illness in Gulf War veterans, a variety of
studies have assessed measurable clinical outcomes in Gulf War veterans in relation to Gulf War
exposures. As summarized in Table 2, these studies have identified significant findings in Gulf War
veterans on brain scans, neurocognitive testing, and measures of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
(HPA) function, which differ in relation to exposures during the Gulf War. Objectively-measured
differences have been identified in association with veterans’ reported use of PB and pesticides, as well as
modeled estimates of exposure to nerve agents.
A recent collaborative study by investigators from the Army, the Boston VA, and Boston University
School of Public Health, identified structural differences in the brains of Gulf War veterans in association
with possible nerve agent exposure. Reduced white matter volume, identified using magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) scans, was significantly correlated, in a dose-response manner, with DOD-modeled
estimates of nerve agent exposures resulting from the Khamisiyah weapons demolitions in March of
1991.599,1780 In an earlier study, this research team also identified neurocognitive decrements in Gulf War
veterans, which also differed in a dose-response manner with modeled levels of nerve agent exposure.1237
Boston investigators had previously identified measurable differences on tests of memory and attention
among symptomatic Gulf War veterans, which were significantly associated with veterans’ reported use
of PB during the war.1512 They have recently reported results from a DOD-funded project that evaluated
neurocognitive function in a sample of Gulf War veterans who worked with pesticides during
deployment.836 Findings indicated that veterans with the highest level exposures to both pesticides and
PB exhibited significantly increased rates of multisymptom illness, as well as significantly greater
memory and motor function decrements, compared to veterans with low or no exposures. In addition,
investigators from the Bronx VA have identified significant differences between Gulf War and
nondeployed era veterans on multiple measures of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) function. HPA
differences were significantly associated with veterans’ symptoms and with their reported use of PB and
pesticides during deployment, but were not associated with psychological stressors or other Gulf War
exposures.501-503

What the Weight of Evidence Tells Us About the Causes of Gulf War Illness  223

Overview of the Evidence Linking Gulf War Illness with Experiences and Exposures
During Gulf War Deployment
An extensive amount of information is available that contributes to understanding what caused Gulf War
illness. Individually, single studies or types of information might suggest the possibility that an exposure
could have caused Gulf War illness. But it is important to consider evidence of all types and studies from
all sources to determine what the evidence most clearly indicates did cause Gulf War illness. Studies of
Gulf War veterans consistently implicate only two wartime exposures as significant risk factors for Gulf
War illness: use of pyridostigmine bromide pills as a nerve agent protective measure, and use of
pesticides during deployment. This is consistent with what is known about the extent and patterns of
these exposures in theater, and with general information from other human and animal studies. Studies of
Gulf War veterans have also consistently indicated that psychological stressors during deployment are not
significant risk factors for Gulf War illness. For several other deployment exposures an association with
Gulf War illness cannot be ruled out, due to inconsistencies or limitations of available information.
Psychological stress. Studies of Gulf War veterans consistently indicate that serving in combat and
other psychological stressors during the war are not significantly associated with Gulf War illness, after
adjusting for effects of other wartime exposures. Time-limited biological effects of psychological
stressors have long been described in human studies, and more extreme psychological stressors and
trauma can lead to chronic psychiatric disorders such as PTSD. Combat and extreme psychological
stressors were less widespread and less sustained in the Gulf War than in other wars, including current
Middle East deployments, and PTSD rates are lower in Gulf War veterans than in veterans of other wars.
Population-based studies generally indicate that between three and six percent of Gulf War veterans are
diagnosed with PTSD and that the large majority of veterans with Gulf War illness have no psychiatric
disorders. Serving in combat and other wartime stressors are associated with higher rates of PTSD in
Gulf War veterans, but not with higher rates of Gulf War illness.
Kuwaiti oil well fires. Widespread exposure to smoke from the Kuwaiti oil well fires was unique to
military service in the 1991 Gulf War, and most prominently affected ground troops in forward locations.
Epidemiologic findings relating oil well fire smoke exposure to Gulf War illness have been mixed,
although a dose-response effect has been identified by several studies. There is little information from
human or animal research to indicate whether intense exposure to petroleum smoke or vapors can lead to
persistent multisymptom illness. Although studies of Gulf War veterans do not provide consistent
evidence that exposure to oil fire smoke is a risk factor for Gulf War illness for most veterans, questions
remain about effects for personnel located in close proximity to the burning wells for an extended period.
Limited findings from epidemiologic studies indicate that higher-level exposures to smoke from the
Kuwaiti oil well fires may be associated with increased rates of asthma in Gulf War veterans, and that an
association with Gulf War illness cannot be ruled out.
Depleted uranium (DU). Low-level exposure to spent DU munitions and dust is thought to have been
widespread during the Gulf War and was most prominent among ground troops in forward locations.
Recent animal studies have demonstrated acute effects of soluble forms of DU on the brain and behavior,
but persistent effects of short term, low-dose exposures like those encountered by the majority of Gulf
War veterans have only minimally been assessed. There is little information from Gulf War or other
human studies concerning chronic symptomatic illness in relation to DU or uranium exposure. Exposure
to DU in post-Gulf War deployments, including current conflicts in the Middle East, has not been
associated with widespread multisymptom illness. This suggests that exposure to DU munitions is not
likely a primary cause of Gulf War illness. Questions remain about long-term health effects of higherdose exposures to DU, however, particularly in relation to other health outcomes.
Vaccines. Receipt of multiple vaccines over a brief time period is a common feature of overseas
military deployments. About 150,000 Gulf War veterans are believed to have received one or two

224  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

anthrax shots, most commonly troops who were in fixed support locations during the war. Although
recent studies have demonstrated that the anthrax vaccine is highly reactogenic, there is no clear evidence
from Gulf War studies that links the anthrax vaccine to Gulf War illness. Taken together, limited findings
from Gulf War epidemiologic studies, the preferred administration to troops in support locations, and the
lack of widespread multisymptom illness resulting from current deployments, combine to indicate that the
anthrax vaccine is not a likely cause of Gulf War illness for most ill veterans. However, limited evidence
from both animal research and Gulf War epidemiologic studies indicates that an association between Gulf
War illness and receipt of a large number of vaccines cannot be ruled out.
Pyridostigmine bromide (PB). Widespread use of PB as a protective measure in the event of nerve
gas exposure was unique to the 1990-1991 Gulf War. Pyridostigmine bromide is one of only two
exposures consistently identified by Gulf War epidemiologic studies to be significantly associated with
Gulf War illness. About half of Gulf War personnel are believed to have taken PB tablets during
deployment, with greatest use among ground troops and those in forward locations. Several studies have
identified dose-response effects, indicating that veterans who took PB for longer periods of time have
higher illness rates than veterans who took less PB. In addition, clinical studies have identified
significant associations between PB use during the Gulf War and neurocognitive and neuroendocrine
alterations identified many years after the war. Taken together, these diverse types and sources of
evidence provide a consistent and persuasive case that use of PB during the Gulf War is causally
associated with Gulf War illness.
Pesticides. The widespread use of multiple types of pesticides and insect repellants in the Gulf War
theater is credited with keeping rates of pest-borne diseases low. Pesticide use, assessed in different
ways, is one of only two exposures consistently identified by Gulf War epidemiologic studies to be
significantly associated with Gulf War illness. Multisymptom illness profiles similar to Gulf War illness
have been associated with low-level pesticide exposures in other human populations. In addition, Gulf
War studies have identified dose-response effects, indicating that greater pesticide use is more strongly
associated with Gulf War illness than more limited use. Pesticide use during the Gulf War has also been
associated with neurocognitive deficits and neuroendocrine alterations in Gulf War veterans in clinical
studies conducted many years after the war. Taken together, all available sources of evidence combine to
support a consistent and compelling case that pesticide use during the Gulf War is causally associated
with Gulf War illness.
Nerve agents. There have been no reports that U.S. forces encountered large-scale, high-dose
exposures to chemical weapons during the Gulf War, but concerns have emerged related to possible longterm effects of low-dose nerve agent exposures during the war. Recent animal studies have identified
brain, autonomic, behavioral, neuroendocrine, and immune effects of low-level sarin exposure that were
previously unknown. Studies of individuals exposed to symptomatic but sublethal doses of sarin in
Japanese terrorist incidents in the 1990s have identified central nervous system effects that have persisted
for many years. The extent of low-level exposure to nerve agents during the Gulf War is unclear,
however. Monitoring equipment used by U.S. forces had little capacity to detect nerve agents at levels
that did not cause immediate symptoms. The Department of Defense estimates that about 100,000 U.S.
troops may have been exposed to low levels of nerve agents following weapons demolitions at
Khamisiyah, Iraq, but serious questions have been raised about the models used to determine who was
exposed, and at what levels. It is also unclear whether additional low-level exposures may have occurred
in other locations. Veterans’ self-reported experiences concerning low-level nerve agent exposure in the
Gulf War are particularly uncertain, and findings from epidemiologic studies linking chemical agents with
Gulf War illness are inconsistent. Studies of Gulf War veterans have identified increased rates of brain
cancer and measurable differences in brain structure and function that relate, in a dose response manner,
to modeled nerve agent exposure levels resulting from the Khamisiyah demolitions. Findings from Gulf
War clinical studies, and from other human and animal research, suggest that an association between Gulf

What the Weight of Evidence Tells Us About the Causes of Gulf War Illness  225

War illness and low-level nerve agent exposure cannot be ruled out, for whatever subgroup of veterans
were exposed.
Infectious disease. A substantial proportion of Gulf War military personnel contracted acute
gastrointestinal and respiratory infections during deployment, but there is little information concerning
patterns of infection in theater and no evidence of widespread chronic illness resulting from those
infections. Atypical leishmania infections were identified in a limited number of veterans who served in
the 1990-1991 Gulf War, and a much larger number of leishmaniasis cases have been reported in
personnel serving in the current Iraq War. Several studies have identified DNA indicators of mycoplasma
infection in about 40 percent of symptomatic Gulf War veterans, but questions about testing methods
have not been adequately addressed. Taken together, there is little clear evidence implicating infectious
diseases as prominent causes of Gulf War illness. Questions remain, however, concerning the possibility
that some individuals with Gulf War illness have undetected chronic leishmania and mycoplasma
infections.
Other exposures in theater. A number of other potentially hazardous exposures in theater have been
suggested as causing or contributing to Gulf War illness. These include fine sand and airborne
particulates, exhaust from tent heaters, other fuel exposures, solvents, and freshly-applied CARC
(chemical agent resistant coating) paint. For most, there is limited evidence of the types considered for
other exposures. Available information, however, suggests that these exposures are not likely to have
caused Gulf War illness for most affected veterans. Epidemiologic studies have provided little clear
information linking any of these exposures to Gulf War illness and most were not most prevalent among
ground troops who were forward deployed. Some, like sand, solvents, and fuel exposures, have also been
widely encountered by personnel in current Middle East deployments. General information from human
and animal studies indicates that fuel and solvent exposures can have neurological effects compatible with
symptoms of Gulf War illness but neither has been associated with Gulf War illness in studies of Gulf
War veterans.
Combinations of exposures. Compared to the diverse types of evidence available related to effects
of individual exposures, research on effects of combinations of Gulf War-related exposures is limited.
Gulf War studies consistently indicate that exposures in theater were highly correlated, that is, that
personnel most often experienced individual exposures in connection with multiple other exposures. This
includes significant correlations between use of different types of pesticides and between use of PB and
pesticides. Animal studies have identified significant effects of exposure to combinations of PB,
pesticides and insect repellants, sarin, and stress, at dosage levels comparable to those experienced by
veterans during the Gulf War. Diverse findings have been reported in relation to chemical absorption,
metabolism, and biological effects of mixtures of neurotoxicants, which differ from those of individual
exposures. There is little information from human studies, however, including the many epidemiologic
studies of Gulf War veterans, concerning combined effects of Gulf War exposures.
A persuasive theoretical case can be made that exposure to mixtures of neurotoxic compounds in theater
are likely contributors to Gulf War illness. Such a case would draw on the consistency of evidence from
all sources indicating that both PB and pesticides are significantly associated with Gulf War illness, the
high correlation between troops’ use of PB and pesticides during deployment, and synergistic effects
between these exposures demonstrated by animal studies. Many of the pesticides used in the Gulf War,
as well as PB and nerve agents, exert toxic effects on the brain and nervous system by altering levels of
acetylcholine, an important nerve signaling chemical. Although such a case is compelling, little evidence
is available from studies of Gulf War veterans to indicate whether or not Gulf War illness is associated
with combinations of these exposures. This important possibility can and should be fully evaluated in
Gulf War studies. Pending such assessments, it is not possible to definitively determine the extent to
which mixtures of cholinergic and other neurotoxicant exposures during deployment contributed to Gulf
War illness. Based on evidence from toxicological research in animals and what is known about patterns

226  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

of exposures during the Gulf War, an association between Gulf War illness and combined effects of
neurotoxicant exposures cannot be ruled out.
There is almost no research to indicate if other wartime exposures interact synergistically with these
neurotoxic compounds or with one another. That is, the biological effects of different mixtures of PB,
multiple pesticides, low-level nerve agents, oil and dense smoke from burning wells, depleted uranium
dust, fuel vapors, exhaust from tent heaters, CARC paint, airborne particulates, infectious agents, and
receipt of multiple vaccines, experienced concurrently or over a brief time period, are unknown. Many
have suggested that unknown and difficult-to-characterize effects may have been precipitated by an
“exposure cocktail” or “toxic soup” effect during Gulf War deployment. While such a theory is
intriguing, there is currently little evidence to indicate whether or not such effects actually occurred, and
the extent to which they may have contributed to Gulf War illness.
Summary: What the Weight of Evidence Tells Us About the Causes of Gulf War Illness
Seventeen years after the Gulf War, answers to the question of what caused Gulf War illness remain
vitally important. An extensive amount of available information now permits an evidence-based
assessment of the relationship of Gulf War illness to the many experiences and exposures encountered by
military personnel during the Gulf War. The strongest and most consistent evidence indicates that use of
pyridostigmine bromide (PB) pills and pesticides are significantly associated with increased rates of Gulf
War illness. The consistency of epidemiologic evidence linking these exposures to Gulf War illness,
identified dose-response effects, findings from Gulf War clinical studies, additional research supporting
biological plausibility, and the compatibility of these findings with known patterns of exposure during
deployment, combine to provide a persuasive case that use of PB pills and pesticides during the 19901991 Gulf War are causally associated with Gulf War illness. Gulf War studies also consistently indicate
that psychological stressors during deployment are not significantly associated with Gulf War illness.
Evidence related to other deployment-related exposures is not as abundant or consistent as evidence
related to PB, pesticides, and psychological stressors. For several wartime exposures, there is some
evidence supporting a possible association with Gulf War illness, but that evidence is inconsistent or
limited in important ways. Clinical studies of Gulf War veterans, studies of other populations exposed to
sarin, and findings from animal studies all suggest that low-level nerve agent exposure can produce
persistent neurological effects that may be compatible with symptoms of Gulf War illness. Therefore, an
association between Gulf War illness and low-level nerve agents cannot be ruled out for those veterans
who were exposed. However, inconsistencies in epidemiologic studies and unreliable exposure
information preclude a clear evaluation of the extent to which such exposures occurred and may have
contributed to Gulf War illness. Limited evidence from several sources also suggests that an association
with Gulf War illness cannot be ruled out in relation to combined effects of neurotoxicant exposures,
receipt of multiple vaccines, and exposure to the Kuwaiti oil fires, particularly for personnel in close
proximity to the burning wells for an extended period.
There is little reliable information from Gulf War studies concerning an association of depleted uranium
or anthrax vaccine to Gulf War illness. The prominence of both exposures in more recent deployments,
in the absence of widespread unexplained illness, suggests that they are unlikely to have been major
causes of Gulf War illness for the majority of ill veterans. Fine, blowing sand, solvents, and fuel
exposures were also widely encountered in both the 1990-1991 Gulf War and in the current Iraq War.
Limited evidence from Gulf War studies does not support an association between these exposures and
Gulf War illness. All of the exposures described can be hazardous in some circumstances, however, and
some veterans may have experienced adverse effects on a more limited basis.

What the Weight of Evidence Tells Us About the Causes of Gulf War Illness  227

228  Effects of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures

3| The Nature of Gulf War Illness
As described throughout this report, Gulf War illness refers to the complex of chronic symptoms that
affect veterans of the 1991 Gulf War at excess rates. The Committee was charged with assessing the
degree to which federally-funded Gulf War research programs have been effective in answering questions
related to the nature, causes, and treatments of Gulf War-related conditions. Previous sections of the
report have reviewed evidence related to the causes of Gulf War illness, and the limited amount of
information available on its treatment. This section provides information related to the nature of Gulf
War illness, that is, scientific research on biological and clinical characteristics of Gulf War illness, and
the relationship of Gulf War illness to symptom-defined medical conditions in the general population. It
also provides the Committee’s recommendations for additional research to improve understanding of
pathophysiological mechanisms associated with Gulf War illness.
Although veterans’ symptoms are the most obvious and consistent indicators of Gulf War illness, dozens
of research studies conducted by multiple investigators have identified objective biological parameters
that significantly distinguish veterans with Gulf War illness from healthy controls. Identified differences
relate to structure and function of the brain, function of the autonomic nervous system, neuroendocrine
and immune alterations, and variability in enzymes that protect the body from neurotoxic chemicals.
Most of these biological differences have been identified by research methods and protocols not routinely
used in healthcare settings. They span a wide variety of findings that provide diverse indicators of
biological differences associated with Gulf War illness but have not, as yet, provided measures that can be
used as diagnostic tests. While scientific progress has been made in understanding the nature of Gulf War
illness, important work remains in identifying the specific pathophysiological processes that underlie
veterans’ symptoms.
Understanding the biological nature of Gulf War illness and the specific physiological processes that
contribute to veterans’ symptoms is of great importance. Veterans have long sought answers to questions
about the nature of Gulf War illness, as have their healthcare providers. Government policymakers also
need this information to improve healthcare and benefits programs that serve Gulf War veterans. But
identifying the specific biological mechanisms that contribute to Gulf War illness is most essential in
order to identify processes that can be targeted for treatment and improved diagnostic testing.
The Committee reviewed the broad spectrum of studies that have evaluated biological and clinical
parameters in Gulf War veterans, focusing most specifically on Gulf War-related multisymptom illness.
That information is summarized in the pages that follow, with the Committee’s recommendations for
research needed to better understand the physiological nature of Gulf War illness. Preliminary
information is also provided in connection with the current emphasis of the Committee’s work, exploring
biological processes not yet studied in Gulf War veterans that may contribute to a better understanding of
Gulf War illness. Additional information is provided from the Committee’s review of research on
multisymptom conditions in the general population, conditions that include chronic fatigue syndrome,
fibromyalgia, and multiple chemical sensitivity. These conditions are often compared to Gulf War
illness, and have frequently been studied in Gulf War veterans. As will be described, studies indicate that
Gulf War illness has both similarities and differences with multisymptom conditions found in the general
population. Research related to these conditions can potentially provide useful insights concerning the
biological mechanisms associated with Gulf War illness, and contribute to identifying beneficial
treatments.

The Nature of Gulf War Illness  229

Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness
In its 2004 report, the Committee provided findings and recommendations on the major areas of research
reviewed to that time. This included the Committee’s finding that a growing body of evidence indicated
that Gulf War Illness had an important neurological component. Since that time, the Committee has
reviewed more recent studies of neurological findings in Gulf War veterans, as well as a wide range of
studies evaluating other biological and clinical parameters.
The majority of studies of Gulf War veterans have historically provided broad assessments of population
patterns of symptoms, hospitalization, and mortality, or have focused on psychiatric assessments in
smaller, clinical samples. Studies that provided clinical evaluations of Gulf War veterans usually found
that physical examinations and standard clinical testing methods identified a limited number of medical
diagnoses, but few objective abnormalities in symptomatic veterans who did not have diagnosed
conditions.160,393,464,879,1651 This sometimes led investigators to conclude that there are no unusual or
abnormal medical problems in Gulf War veterans. The absence of consistent diagnostic indicators from
routine clinical testing methods suggested to some that Gulf War illness was not a medical problem with
identifiable biological abnormalities. An alternate interpretation was that the biological abnormalities that
underlie veterans’ symptomatic illness were unfamiliar, and could not be detected by clinical tests
routinely used to diagnose more familiar conditions.
Results from a diverse spectrum of research studies that are now available support the second perspective,
that is, that veterans are medically ill, but that the physiological abnormalities that contribute to their
illness are not captured by tests routinely used in clinical practice. This view has long been supported, in
a broad sense, by the large number of population studies documenting consistent symptom profiles
affecting substantial numbers of Gulf War veterans from different units and regions. This pattern of
medically unexplained symptoms distinguished Gulf War veterans from contemporary veterans who did
not serve in the Gulf War, and from veterans who have since served in hostile engagements in Bosnia and
Iraq. Moreover, veterans’ illnesses have not been linked to combat or deployment stress, but are
consistently associated with neurotoxic exposures in the 1990-1991 Gulf War. The view of Gulf War
illness as an organic illness is further supported by more recent studies that have identified diverse
biological alterations in symptomatic veterans. Overall, available evidence consistently indicates that
veterans with Gulf War illness are medically ill, but that clinicians have lacked the diagnostic tools
needed to determine the nature of veterans’ symptomatic illness.
For the first 10 years after Desert Storm, before most research described in the present report was
available, the view of Gulf War illness as a stress-related psychological problem was more common.
Limited research was conducted during those years to assess unfamiliar biological abnormalities in
symptomatic veterans, that is, abnormalities not detected by routine clinical examination and testing.
When the Committee issued its last major report, nearly all scientific findings that provided objective
evidence of biological alterations in veterans with Gulf War illness came from studies of neurological
parameters in symptomatic veterans. In the last several years, a growing number of studies have provided
more detailed evaluations of biological parameters in relation to Gulf War illness, using research methods
not previously used in Gulf War veterans and, in some cases, methods that have only recently been
developed.
As will be described in the following pages, multiple studies have now reported diverse biological
findings that distinguish symptomatic Gulf War veterans from control groups. These differences relate to
a variety of biological systems, and include findings related to brain structure and function identified by
neuroimaging scans and neurocognitive studies, alterations in autonomic function, findings associated
with the immune system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, as well as novel findings related to the
body’s ability to protect itself from neurotoxic exposures. Recent studies that have relied on more routine

230  The Nature of Gulf War Illness

clinical testing methods, however, have continued to identify only limited differences between
symptomatic Gulf War veterans and comparison groups.
In reviewing existing research on biological characteristics of Gulf War illness, the Committee has
identified several methodological issues that appear to have played a role in whether studies identified
clear distinctions, or raised additional questions as a result of inconclusive or conflicting results. Overall,
the most informative studies have compared symptomatic Gulf War veterans to healthy controls, rather
than combining all deployed Gulf War veterans into a single group—symptomatic and healthy veterans
together—and comparing them to referent groups. Different Gulf War illness case definitions also appear
to affect the clarity of study findings, with fewer distinctions identified by studies that use less specific
case definitions of “ill” versus “well” veterans. Studies that distinguish Gulf War illness subgroups of
importance appear to be particularly informative, for example, subgroups of veterans with different
clinical characteristics, symptom profiles, and/or exposure histories.
Important progress has been provided by the growing body of research studies that have identified
diverse, objectively measured biological alterations in veterans with Gulf War illness. These studies have
provided insights into the biological systems and processes affected by Gulf War illness. Significant
work remains, however, in characterizing the precise pathophysiological processes that underlie veterans’
symptoms. It is important to determine if differences identified by individual studies are replicable in
other veterans affected by Gulf War illness or are most relevant to identifiable Gulf War illness
subgroups. A clearer understanding is needed of how identified biological abnormalities contribute to
veterans’ persistent symptoms, and how findings in different areas interrelate with one another. Most
importantly, additional research is needed to determine how biological findings in veterans with Gulf War
illness can be most usefully applied to identifying diagnostic tests and beneficial treatments.

Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness  231

Brain and Central Nervous System Alterations in Gulf War Veterans
I had never had headaches before the war, but now I was having them frequently and they
were getting worse. My dizziness was getting worse but wasn’t bad enough yet to make me
nauseous or to make me fall. By the summer of 1992, I was having violent and explosive
vertigo attacks, and it was becoming more difficult to focus on anything. My concentration
was so poor that I would forget how to reach my projected destination …
--Army Colonel, Gulf War veteran716

As described in detail in the Committee’s previous report, a growing body of evidence available in 2004
indicated that an important component of Gulf War illness is neurological in character. From the earliest
years that veterans first returned from the Gulf War with symptoms of persistent headache, problems with
memory and concentration, and balance and mood disturbances, clinicians have suspected that veterans’
symptoms could be associated with central nervous system abnormalities. Clinical examinations,
however, typically provided few indications of identifiable neurological disorders in Gulf War veterans.
Today, multiple lines of research have supported early clinical and research indications that service in the
Gulf War, for many veterans, has had persistent adverse effects on the central nervous system, as
summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Summary of Research Findings Indicative of Persistent Central Nervous System
Effects Associated with Gulf War Service

Area of Research

Major Findings in Gulf War Veterans

Symptom evaluations in large
population-based studies

All epidemiologic studies have identified prominent neurological symptom
complexes affecting Gulf War veterans at significantly excess rates. Characteristic
symptoms include persistent headache, memory and concentration difficulties,
dizziness, mood, and visual disturbances.

Diagnosed neurological diseases

ALS affects Gulf War veterans at twice the rate of nondeployed veterans; Gulf War
veterans downwind from 1991 Khamisiyah demolitions have died from brain
cancer at twice the rate of other veterans in theater.

Neuroimaging research

Studies utilizing MRI, MRS, and SPECT scans have identified abnormalities in
basal ganglia, brain stem, hippocampus, white matter volume, and cerebral blood
perfusion that distinguish symptomatic from healthy veterans. MRI studies have
identified reduced white matter volume in relation to the Khamisiyah demolitions.

Neuropsychological research

Multiple differences in neurocognitive function sign. distinguish symptomatic Gulf
War veterans from healthy controls, after controlling for effects of psychological
status. Neurocognitive abnormalities have also been identified in relation to
neurotoxic exposures in theater.

Abbreviations: ALS = amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, MRI = Magnetic Resonance Imaging, MRS = Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy,
SPECT = Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography, sign. = statistically significant

All population-based studies have consistently identified symptom complexes suggestive of central
nervous system abnormalities at significantly elevated rates in Gulf War veterans. Identified rates of two
diagnosed diseases also suggest that Gulf War service led to neurological sequelae. Amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis (ALS), a rare and fatal neurodegenerative condition, has been shown to affect Gulf War veterans
at twice the rate of nondeployed era veterans.557,633,634,636 The mortality rate from brain cancer has also
been reported to be twice as high for veterans downwind from munitions demolitions at Khamisiyah, Iraq,
in March of 1991, compared to veterans in other areas of theater.105,192 Elevated rates of ALS and brain

232  Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness

cancer suggest the need for additional research to determine rates of other neurological disorders in Gulf
War veterans, research that has not yet been conducted. These diagnoses have been identified in a
relatively small number of Gulf War veterans, however, compared to the widespread problem of Gulf
War illness.
This section of the report provides information on research that has evaluated central nervous system
parameters in Gulf War veterans, with a particular focus on veterans with Gulf War illness. Several
research teams have identified objective indicators of central nervous system alterations in Gulf War
veterans using sophisticated brain scans and neurocognitive testing methods. Objectively measured
differences identified in these studies are not diagnostic of familiar neurological diseases, but have been
significantly associated both with veterans’ symptoms and with chemical exposures during the war.
Additional findings related to other aspects of neurological function, including autonomic regulation,
peripheral neuromuscular and sensory findings, and neuroendocrine alterations, are each considered in
separate sections.
Observers have sometimes commented, in reviews and editorials, that studies have not identified evidence
of neurological abnormalities in Gulf War veterans.101,686,1310 These comments have referred, most
generally, to the lack of neurological findings identified on standard clinical evaluation, or the
infrequency of peripheral neuromuscular and sensory abnormalities in Gulf War veterans. The
Committee’s review of findings from standard clinical examinations and peripheral nerve studies also
found that these types of evaluations provide little indication of abnormalities in Gulf War veterans. It is
important to distinguish the lack of findings in these areas, however, from the many significant findings
identified in relation to other aspects of neurological function in symptomatic Gulf War veterans,
including identified alterations in brain structure and function, and autonomic nervous system
dysregulation.
Neuroimaging Findings in Gulf War Veterans
Computed tomography (CT) scans and conventional MRI help rule out naturally occurring
disorders; they rarely show lesions specific for neurotoxic disease.
-- Experimental and Clinical Neurotoxicology, 20001359

Gulf War veterans have been evaluated with different types of neuroimaging scans, in research studies
and clinical practice, to determine if Gulf War illness is associated with discernable abnormalities in brain
structure or function. Several studies of this type were described in the Committee’s 2004 report, and
additional research has been reported in recent years, as summarized in Tables 2 and 3. The earliest
clinical reports evaluated symptomatic Gulf War veterans using electroencephalograms (EEG), as well as
standard computerized tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of the head. As
has often been the case with more routine clinical testing methods, few abnormalities were identified in
these studies, and no significant differences between Gulf War illness cases and controls.46,563,878,893,1109
Early evaluations of Gulf War veterans at the University of Texas Southwestern (UTSW) also had not
identified differences between symptomatic and healthy veterans on MRI or SPECT (single photon
emission computed tomography) scans.563 In a later study, UTSW investigators assessed the same
veterans using long echo proton (1H) magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS).568 Results indicated that
veterans with the three Haley syndromes had significantly reduced N-acetyl-aspartate to creatine
(NAA/Cr) ratios compared to healthy controls, reflecting reduced functioning brain cell mass in the
brainstem and bilaterally in the basal ganglia. The specific regions affected differed for each of the three
Haley Syndromes, as detailed in Table 2. Investigators also reported that reduced brain cell mass was
associated with central dopamine activity in symptomatic veterans. Specifically, reduced neuronal mass

Brain and Central Nervous System  233

Table 2. Published EEG and Brain Imaging Findings in Symptomatic Gulf War Veterans

Study
Newmark
1995

Group Studied
1109

Method(s)

65 active duty GWV evaluated in EEG
the CCEP

Key Findings
No EEG abnormalities identified

Haley563
1997

23 GWV with Haley Syndromes, MRI, SPECT No MRI differences between cases and controls. Similar
10 well GWV, 10 nondeployed
proportion of cases and controls had foci of T2 signal intensity in
controls
subcortical white matter (26-30%). No SPECT abnormalities
identified.

Amato46
1997

20 GWV referred for
neurological evaluation

Haley568
2000

22 Navy Reserve GWV with
Proton MRS
Haley syndromes, 2nd sample of
6 GWV with Haley Syndrome 2,
18 veteran controls (9 GWV, 9
nondeployed)

Meyerhoff1027 11 GWV with CMI, 11
2001
nonveteran controls

EEG, CT

No abnormalities on EEG, CT scans of the head.
NAA/creatine ratio sign. lower in symptomatic GWV than controls:
Syndrome 1 in basal ganglia, Syndrome 3 in brainstem, and
Syndrome 2 in basal ganglia (14%) and brainstem (26%). Choline/
creatine ratio sign. lower in basal ganglia of Syndrome 1 GWV
than in controls. Syndrome 2 findings replicated in 2nd GWV
sample.

Proton MRS NAA/creatine ratio sign. lower in right basal ganglia of ill GW
veterans compared to controls. No differences in choline/creatine
ratio.

Lee878
2005

33 symptomatic GWV evaluated EEG, CT or
in the UK GVMAP
MRI

Menon1022
2004

10 symptomatic GWV, 5
Proton MRS NAA/creatine ratio in hippocampus was sign. lower in symptomatic
nonsymptomatic GWV, Vietnam
GWV than in GWV and Vietnam controls, and in younger GWV
veteran controls
than older GWV. No difference in choline/creatine ratios.

Levine893
2006

27 symptomatic GWV, 15 GWV EEG
with PTSD, 11 symptomatic
nondeployed GWV, 4
nonsymptomatic GWV

GWV had no abnormalities on EEG

Spence1462
2006

21 GWV with Haley syndromes, SPECT
17 veteran controls (9 GWV, 8
nondeployed)

Using a modified method to control for global signal effect,
Syndrome 2 GWV had sign. lower average intracerebral blood
flow and regional emission in areas of insula and frontal cortex.
Effects were not observed using standard global scaling measure.

Results reported as “no evidence of any neurological disorder”
specific measures not provided.

Abbreviations: GWV = Gulf War veterans, CCEP = DOD’s Comprehensive Clinical Evaluation Program, EEG = electroencephalogram, MRI =
Magnetic Resonance Imaging, MRS = Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy, CT = Computerized Tomography, GVMAP = Gulf Veterans’ Medical
Assessment Program (U.K. registry for GWV), NAA = N-acetyl aspartate, SPECT = Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography, CMI =
chronic multisymptom illness,464 sign. = statistically significant

in the left, but not the right, basal ganglia was significantly correlated with increased central dopamine
activity, estimated using the ratio of plasma homovanillic acid (HVA) to 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol (MHPG).562
The UTSW MRS findings were soon replicated, in part, in a pilot study conducted by investigators at the
San Francisco VAMC, in which 11 Gulf War veterans with chronic multisymptom illness (CMI) were
found to have a significantly reduced NAA/Cr ratio in the right basal ganglia, compared to healthy

234  Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness

Table 3. Preliminary Findings from Additional Neuroimaging Research
on Symptomatic Gulf War Veterans

Study

Group Studied

Method(s)

Key Findings

Weiner1758 52 GWV with CMI, 83 GWV with Proton MRS
2005
inconsistent symptoms, 90 healthy
GWV controls (GWV include 25
with Haley Syndrome 2)

No sign. differences between groups in NAA/creatine ratios or
NAA/choline ratios in basal ganglia or brainstem.
Choline/creatine ratio in right basal ganglia sign. lower in
Syndrome 2 GWV than healthy controls.

Haley558
2006

Sign. differences in global CBF response to physostigmine
infusion in Syndrome 2 GWV compared to controls and
Syndromes 1 and 3; multiple regional differences identified
between Syndrome 2 and controls.

21 GWV with Haley syndromes,
17 veterans controls (9 GWV, 8
nondeployed)

CBF response to
cholinergic
challenge, using
SPECT

Abbreviations: GWV = Gulf War veterans, CMI = chronic multisymptom illness,464 CBF = cerebral blood flow, MRI = Magnetic Resonance
Imaging, NAA = N-acetyl aspartate, SPECT = Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography, sign. = statistically significant

controls.1027 More recently, researchers at the VAMC in Jackson, Mississippi, identified significantly
lower NAA/Cr ratios in the left and right hippocampus of symptomatic Gulf War veterans compared to
both healthy Gulf War veterans and Vietnam-era controls.1022 And in 2006, UTSW researchers reported
that veterans with Haley Syndrome 2 had significantly reduced cerebral blood flow, both globally and
regionally in the frontal cortex and insula, compared to healthy controls. These findings were obtained
with SPECT scans using a newly developed analytic method to control for global signal effect.1462
As previously mentioned, an additional Gulf War neuroimaging study of interest comes from the Boston
VA Environmental Hazards Research Center, which did not specifically evaluate differences between
symptomatic and healthy veterans. The Boston study used MRI scans to assess the volume of brain
structures in 26 Gulf War veterans in relation to DOD-modeled exposure levels to sarin and cyclosarin
after the Khamisiyah weapons demolitions in March of 1991.599 Results indicated that Gulf War veterans
had significantly reduced white matter volume, and enlarged right and left ventricles that varied, in a dose
response manner, with increasing sarin and cyclosarin exposure. These results parallel findings of
regional reductions in white matter volume in sarin-exposed survivors of the Japanese subway attack in
1995.1816
One additional MRI study of Gulf War veterans comes from National Institutes of Health investigators,
but did not evaluate either multisymptom illness or exposures in theater. Rather, it compared brain
volume measures in 37 Gulf War veterans with and without PTSD to those of nondeployed reservists and
healthy civilians. Gulf War veterans, overall, as well as nondeployed reservists, had significantly smaller
hippocampal volumes than healthy nonveteran controls. There were no significant differences between
Gulf War veterans with and without PTSD.1739
Overall, accumulated findings from published studies have indicated that Gulf War illness is not
associated with abnormalities on EEG, CT, or standard MRI evaluations. In contrast, proton MRS studies
from three research teams have identified Gulf War illness-related alterations in three brain areas:
brainstem, basal ganglia, and hippocampus. Additional studies have identified significantly reduced
cerebral blood flow in the most severely ill Gulf War veterans, using specialized SPECT scan analyses,
and reduced white matter volume in relation to modeled levels of nerve agent exposure. Most published
imaging findings come from relatively small studies that assessed different types of abnormalities in
different areas. Therefore, additional research is needed to determine if these findings can be replicated
and/or further extended in larger samples.

Brain and Central Nervous System  235

The Committee also reviewed preliminary results from three additional federally-funded Gulf War
neuroimaging projects. Although final results have not yet been published, early findings from two of the
studies have been presented at Committee meetings and research conferences, and are summarized in
Table 3. As shown, preliminary results from the San Francisco VAMC MRS project1758 do not appear to
support earlier findings from that group’s pilot project1027 and the initial UTSW MRS study.568
Symptomatic veterans in this study have not been found to have reduced NAA/Cr ratios in basal ganglia
or the brainstem.1758 The Committee will review additional information from this study and final results
when they are available, in order to gain a clearer understanding of the study’s findings and apparent
discrepancies with earlier projects.
Preliminary findings from an additional SPECT study of Gulf War veterans conducted by UTSW suggest
additional cerebral blood flow abnormalities in Gulf War veterans with Haley Syndrome 2. Specifically,
results indicate that symptomatic veterans differ from healthy controls in the magnitude and direction of
cerebral blood flow response to cholinergic challenge, globally and in several identified brain regions.558
In addition, early results from an additional MRI study of Gulf War veterans have been reported by
researchers from Boston VA and Boston University.1224,1780 Preliminary findings indicate that highly
symptomatic Gulf War veterans have significantly reduced total white matter volume, compared to
veterans with few or no symptoms.
Overall, a variety of neuroimaging studies have provided multiple indications of differences in brain
structure and function that distinguish symptomatic Gulf War veterans from healthy controls. Few Gulf
War illness-related brain abnormalities or case/control differences have been identified on tests routinely
used in clinical practice—EEGs, CT scans, and visual evaluation of MRI. More specialized brain
imaging studies, however, have consistently provided significant findings. Of the seven identified
projects that have compared symptomatic Gulf War veterans with healthy controls using proton MRS,
specialized SPECT analyses, and volume assessment of brain structures using MRI, six have identified
significant Gulf War illness-related differences with healthy controls. This includes findings from four
published studies and preliminary findings from two additional projects that have not yet been published.
No case/control differences have been identified in preliminary findings from one unpublished study. An
additional study has identified brain structure alterations in Gulf War veterans whose symptom profiles
were not considered, finding an overall reduction in white matter volume in relation to modeled nerve
agent exposures during the Gulf War.
The neuroimaging findings described have been an important step forward in documenting central
nervous system alterations in relation to Gulf War illness and, to a limited extent, Gulf War exposures.
Significant findings from the structural MRI and SPECT studies depended on technical methods
developed in recent years, and therefore could not have been identified when the earliest Gulf War studies
were conducted. Thus far, however, the variable methods used to evaluate different types of parameters
in different brain regions have, in effect, produced multiple one-of-a-kind findings. In most cases, there
have not been attempts to reproduce these results or integrate them with other findings in Gulf War
veterans. The Committee appreciates and encourages the ongoing efforts of different research teams to
carefully reexamine existing findings and to evaluate measures of brain structure and function in relation
to additional health, functional, and exposure parameters in order to provide a fuller understanding of the
nature of brain abnormalities in Gulf War veterans.

236  Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness

Neurocognitive Findings in Gulf War veterans
When I first came back from the war, I had a lot of problems remembering things. One day I
drove my kids to school and dropped them off, but then instead of driving home I just
wandered around for a couple of hours because I couldn’t remember where I was going.
-- SSgt PB, Gulf War veteran716

Prominent symptoms suggestive of neurological abnormalities in returning veterans—headache, memory
and concentration problems, balance abnormalities, mood alterations—prompted early use of
neuropsychological assessments in Gulf War veterans.78,499,624,1778,1779 Neuropsychological studies provide
objective measures of brain function, and constitute the largest body of research on central nervous
system function in Gulf War veterans. Neuropsychological testing assesses different cognitive domains,
which reflect function in areas of the brain that support different types of cognitive tasks. Executive
system tasks, for example, reflect frontal lobe functioning. A wide variety of specialized tests are used
clinically and in research studies to assess cognitive domains that include attention, executive system
functioning, motor skills, visuospatial functioning, memory, mood, and performance effort.
Neuropsychological testing has been used for many years to quantify neurocognitive deficits related to
chemical exposures.47 Evaluations can be used to assess damage in individuals who exhibit clinically
obvious effects of chemical poisoning and also to identify more subtle dysfunction in exposed individuals
without clinically obvious disease.48,939 For example, neuropsychological studies indicate that
agricultural workers chronically exposed to organophosphate pesticides exhibit identifiable decrements in
processing speed and mood.1320,1483
There are two general categories of neuropsychological tests: (1) tests that characterize cognitive
measures that are relatively stable over time, used to estimate baseline abilities that predate the illness
condition being assessed, and (2) tests that have high specificity for detecting functions differentially
affected by particular diseases or neurotoxicants. Performance on neurocognitive tests can be affected by
a number of factors, which should be assessed and controlled for in well-conducted studies. These
include age, education, gender, medical conditions, and psychiatric conditions like PTSD and depression.
Motivational measures should also be assessed to ascertain if the examinee is exerting adequate effort to
ensure the test battery is a valid assessment of their cognitive functioning.
The impact of psychological parameters—as contributors, as cofactors, and as outcomes, are extremely
important considerations in neuropsychological testing, and can be complex. Changes in affect and
emotional functioning, for example, depression or abnormal mood swings, can be symptoms of brain
injury, and so are important to measure when assessing central nervous system function.1359,1779,1781 On
the other hand, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other psychiatric conditions can directly affect
neurocognitive function and test measures. It is important, therefore, to adjust measured
neuropsychological outcomes for the effects of psychiatric conditions like PTSD or depression. But this
can be problematic if psychological factors, such as depression, are “overcontrolled,” reducing or
eliminating the effect of the brain injury being evaluated.1709,1779
The large number of projects that have evaluated neuropsychological parameters in Gulf War veterans
have used diverse tests to assess different aspects of brain function in studies of varying design, size, and
quality. One important distinction in this group of studies relates to whether neurocognitive function was
assessed in relation to Gulf War deployment overall (e.g., comparing outcomes in deployed and
nondeployed veterans), in relation to Gulf War illness (comparing symptomatic to healthy veterans), or in
relation to exposures during deployment (comparing Gulf War veterans who had a particular exposure in
theater to unexposed veterans). The first type of studies, those that assessed neuropsychological
outcomes in relation to Gulf War deployment, do not provide insights specific to Gulf War illness, since
they combine neuropsychological measures obtained in symptomatic veterans with those of healthy
veterans. Those studies are summarized in Table 4.

Brain and Central Nervous System  237

Table 4. Neurocognitive Evaluation of Gulf War-Deployed Veterans Overall,
Not Differentiated by Veterans’ Health Status

Study

Sample

Key Findings

Goldstein
1996

21 GWV, 38 nonveterans

GWV had sign. lower overall test performance, as measured by global
impairment index based on 14 tests. No sign. differences on individual tests.
Adjustment for psychological covariates reduced or eliminated group
differences.

Axelrod78
1997

44 male GWV from Army
Guard unit

Compared to normative values, GWV had sign. deficits on measures of motor
speed and executive functioning.

Sillanpaa1409
1997

49 GWV from a single
Army reserve military
police unit

Neuropsych test performance sign. corr. with emotional dysfunction.

White1782
2001

193 GWV, 47 Germany
deployed veterans

GWV scored sign. worse on tests of attention and executive functioning and
mood states. Only mood functioning scores differed sign. after controlling for
multiple comparisons and psychological diagnoses.

499

Lindem/Heeren910
2003

In GWV, sign. corr. between PTSD severity and poorer performance on tests of
intellectual ability, sustained attention, motor speed and coordination, verbal
learning, and mood. PTSD-related effects differed in veterans who did/did not
report exposure to chemical agents.

Lindem/Proctor911
2003

Sign. more neuropsych symptoms reported by GWV than Germany deployed
veterans. GWV neuropsych symptoms not sign. associated with performance
deficits but were correlated with mood measures.

Lindem/White912
2003

In subset of 58 GWV and 19 Germany-deployed veterans tested for motivation
and effort, most had perfect or near-perfect scores; similar subset of GWV and
Germany deployed scored suboptimally.

David315
2002

207 British GWV, 78
GWV had sign. worse performance on tests of verbal and intellectual
nondeployed era veterans performance, motor speed, and dexterity. Differences were reduced or
eliminated with adjustments for depression, multiple comparisons.

Gray527
2002

3,831 GWV Seabees,
4,933 Seabees deployed
elsewhere, 3,104
nondeployed Seabees

GWV had sign. higher (worse) scores than other two groups on Cognitive
Failures Questionnaire.

Vasterling1708
2003

72 GWV, 33 nondeployed
veterans

No sign. difference on neuropsych measures.

Proctor1240
2003

143 Danish GWV, 72
nondeployed veterans

No sign. differences on neuropsych tests. GWV reported sign. more mood
disturbances than nondeployed veterans.

Vythilingham1739
2005

14 GWV with PTSD, 23
GWV without PTSD, 22
nondeployed veterans, 29
healthy civilians

No neuropsych differences associated with PTSD or Gulf War deployment.
GWV with and without PTSD and nondeployed reservists had sign. worse
scores than healthy civilians on measures of visual and verbal memory.

Barrash102
2007

301 GWV, 99 era veterans Only 1% of GWV and 4% of era veterans had neuropsych test results judged to
deployed elsewhere
be noncredible by independent reviews.

Abbreviations: GWV = Gulf War veterans, neuropsych = neuropsychological, PTSD = posttraumatic stress disorder, sign. = statistically
significant, corr. = correlated

238  Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness

As shown in Table 4, studies that assessed neuropsychological function in relation to Gulf War
deployment overall, but not specifically in veterans with chronic symptomatic illness, typically identified
limited, or no, differences with reference groups. Deployment-related differences most often were found
on tests of mood and emotional functioning, while identified differences in other neurocognitive domains
were often diminished or eliminated when adjusted for effects of psychiatric conditions or emotional
functioning.315,499,910,911,1782 In reviewing these studies, the Institute of Medicine suggested that several
may have overcorrected for depression and multiple comparisons, potentially masking subtle cognitive
deficits in several domains.686 Studies indicated that veterans’ subjective cognitive symptoms were often
not associated with objectively-measured performance deficits, and were more closely correlated with
reduced mood scores.78,911 Several studies reported that Gulf War veterans’ level of motivation and effort
during cognitive testing was similar to that of nondeployed era veterans, and that noncredible
neuropsychological examination due to insufficient effort or malingering was not a significant problem in
studies of Gulf War veterans.102,912,1782
Neurocognitive findings in Gulf War veterans with multisymptom illness. Studies that evaluated
neurocognitive measures in symptomatic Gulf War veterans provide information more specifically relevant to
Gulf War illness. Results of these studies are summarized in Table 5. As shown, neuropsychological
evaluations consistently identified significant differences in neurocognitive function between symptomatic Gulf
War veterans and healthy controls. These included differences in tests of attention and executive system
functioning, memory, visuospatial skills, psychomotor skills, and mood and emotional functioning. Identified
differences, while generally not large, were consistently significant and remained significant after adjustments
for emotional functioning and psychiatric disorders. Findings, in some cases, indicated that symptomatic
veterans display a slowing of response speed that affects their mental flexibility across multiple cognitive
domains. This was most apparent on tests that were timed and computerized, on which small differences in
reaction times could be detected.49,864
A potentially important distinction was first identified in a 1999 study of symptomatic Gulf War veterans
from the Pacific Northwest,49 confirmed in an expanded sample,1497 and generally supported by other
studies.1782 The Pacific Northwest study identified a subgroup of symptomatic veterans who had
significantly reduced neurocognitive performance on a variety of tests. These “slow cases” were similar
to other symptomatic veterans on measures of psychological distress but exhibited a unique profile of
objective deficits in memory, attention, and response speed. Investigators suggested that this subgroup
should be the focus of additional study,49,1497 supporting the broader point that subgroups of importance
can be obscured when all symptomatic veterans are considered as a single group.1709
Neuropsychological evaluation of symptomatic veterans again indicated that many who report cognitive
difficulties do not have objectively measurable neurocognitive deficits and that performance motivation is
not generally a problem in Gulf War studies.78,135,315,1497,1512,1708 And, although psychiatric and emotional
parameters are often associated with reduced cognitive function in symptomatic Gulf War veterans,
psychological factors do not account for or explain the neurocognitive deficits identified in symptomatic
Gulf War veterans.686,1709,1779
Neurocognitive function in relation to exposures in theater. In discussing results of their
studies of Gulf War veterans, some investigators have commented that identified neurocognitive deficits
resemble those associated with neurotoxic exposures.49,78,864 Several Gulf War studies have specifically
evaluated veterans’ neurocognitive function in relation to exposures they encountered during deployment,
and are summarized in Table 6. Most evaluated neuropsychological outcomes in relation to neurotoxic
exposures—nerve agents, pesticides, and pyridostigmine bromide (PB)—without specific reference to
multisymptom illness. The majority of these studies have been conducted by researchers from VA’s
Boston Environmental Hazards Research Center and Boston University. A 2001 study from Dr. Roberta
White and colleagues reported that, among veterans in the Fort Devens cohort, self reported pesticide use

Brain and Central Nervous System  239

Table 5. Neurocognitive Evaluation of Symptomatic Gulf War Veterans

Study

Sample

Key Findings

Axelrod78
1997

17 GWV with neurocog
symptoms, 27 GWV with no
neurocog symptoms

Veterans with cognitive symptoms exhibited sign. lower scores on tests of motor
speed and executive functioning, and exhibited more psychological distress.

Haley563
1997

23 GWV with Haley Syndromes, Symptomatic GWV, overall, scored sign. worse than controls on measures of
10 GWV and 10 nondeployed generalized brain function and on specific measure of executive system
veteran controls
functioning. Most sign. deficits were in veterans with Syndrome 2.

Hom624
1997

Anger49
1999

26 GWV with Haley Syndromes, Symptomatic GWV had sign. lower scores on summary measures of intellectual
10 GWV and 10 nondeployed and cognitive function and performed sign. worse on tests of abstract reasoning
veteran controls
and problem solving, flexibility of thought, verbal and perceptual motor skills,
tactile and visual perception, psychological and emotional functioning.
66 GWV with unexplained
symptoms from WA and OR,
35 GWV controls

Symptomatic GWV, overall, had sign. poorer performance on memory test. “Slow
case” subgroup of symptomatic GWV had sign. poorer performance on tests of
memory, attention, and response speed.

Binder135
1999

100 GWV with unexplained
symptoms

Subjective cognitive complaints sign. corr. with measures of response latency
and affective distress, but modestly corr. with other neuropsych measures.

Storzbach1496
2000

241 GWV with unexplained
symptoms, 113 GWV controls

Symptomatic GWV had sign. poorer performance on tests of memory, attention,
and response time, and sign. greater psychological distress.

Storzbach1497
2001

239 symptomatic GWV, 112
GWV controls

In expanded sample, subgroup of “slow cases” were again identified who
performed sign. worse on tasks of memory, attention, and response time. Other
symptomatic GWV had very limited neuropsych differences from controls.

Binder136
2001

32 GWV with CFS, 62 GWV
controls

GWV with CFS performed sign. worse on measures of reaction time and forced
choice after controlling for effects of premorbid cognitive differences.

Bunegin193
2001

8 symptomatic GWV, 8 GWV
controls

Symptomatic GWV had sign. poorer performance on tasks of memory and
executive function on a computerized battery.

Lange864
2001

48 symptomatic GWV, 39 GWV Symptomatic GWV had sign. poorer performance on measures of attention,
controls
concentration, information processing, and abstraction and conceptualization.
Sign. differences remained after controlling for concurrent psychopathology.

David315
2002

65 GWV with CMI, 33 GWV with GWV with CMI performed sign. worse on multiple measures than healthy
no symptoms
controls. Sign. poorer performance on vocabulary and digit-symbol tests after
adjusting for depression, no sign. differences after Bonferroni correction.

Gray527
2002

845 GWV Seabees who met
GWV with any of 4 multisymptom illnesses or more than 12 symptoms were sign.
study criteria for GWI, 2986 who more likely to score > 42 on Cognitive Failures questionnaire than GWV without
did not.
GWI (odds ratios between 3.3 and 12.7).

Sullivan1512
2003

207 treatment seeking GWV
(120 referred for neuropsych
evaluation), 53 treatment
seeking nondeployed veterans

GWV performed sign. worse on measures of attention, visuospatial skills,
memory, and mood. Differences remained sign. after controlling for effects of
PTSD.

Abbreviations: GWV = Gulf War veterans, corr=correlated, neurocog = neurocognitive, neuropsych = neuropsychological, WA = Washington
state, OR = Oregon, CFS = chronic fatigue syndrome, sign. = statistically significant

240  Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness

Table 6. Neurocognitive Evaluation of Gulf War Veterans in Relation to Exposures in Theater

Study

Sample

Key Findings

Sillanpaa
1997

49 GWV from a single Army
reserve military police unit

Neuropsych test performance not sign. associated with exposure score derived
from multiple exposures combined.

White1782
Lindem910
2001

193 Army GWV in Fort
Devens cohort

Self-reported pesticide exposure associated with sign. worse scores on all POMS
subscales; self-reported exposure to chemical weapons associated with sign.
worse scores on measures of memory, attention/executive functioning, and mood.

140 Army GWV with
modeled estimates of nerve
agent exposure

Modeled nerve agent exposure sign. associated, in dose-dependant pattern, with
poorer performance on tests of fine psychomotor dexterity and visuospatial skills.
Nerve agent exposure was not sign. associated with mood state.

1409

Proctor1237
2006
Vasterling1708
2003

26 GWV with higher
Neuropsych test performance not sign. associated with higher level exposures (all
exposure levels, compared to exposures combined into one measure).
46 GWV with lower level
exposures

Sullivan1512
2003

207 GWV seeking treatment GWV who reported using PB performed sign. worse than GWV who did not use
PB on measures of executive system functioning.

Abbreviations: GWV = Gulf War veterans, POMS = Profile of Mood States, DU = depleted uranium, PB = pyridostigmine bromide,
sign. = statistically significant

was significantly associated with measures of reduced mood functioning, and veterans who reported
exposure to chemical warfare agents had significantly greater deficits on tests of memory, attention, and
mood.1782 Dr. Kim Sullivan and colleagues later reported that Gulf War veterans who used PB during
deployment scored significantly worse on measures of executive system function than veterans who did
not use PB, after controlling for effects of PTSD.1512
In 2006, Dr. Susan Proctor and colleagues identified significant neurocognitive deficits in veterans
potentially exposed to sarin and cyclosarin following weapons demolitions near Khamisiyah, Iraq, in
March of 1991. In detailed analyses, slowed performance on psychomotor and visuospatial tasks was
significantly associated with modeled nerve agent exposure levels in a dose-response pattern, that is,
greater deficits were correlated with greater exposure levels. This study is noteworthy for a number of
reasons. In contrast to previous studies, exposure data were provided by DOD models that estimated
levels of sarin and cyclosarin exposure for troops in specific locations, rather than relying on veterans’
self-reported exposures. In addition, the neuropsychological testing had been done prior to veterans being
notified about the Khamisiyah demolitions, providing test results for which both veterans and
investigators were blind to veterans’ exposure status.1237 Study results parallel those from neurocognitive
studies of Japanese citizens exposed to sarin in the 1995 subway terrorist incident, in whom persistent
neurocognitive deficits were documented several years after exposure.1054,1128,1827,1828
Boston researchers are currently completing a project that involves neuropsychological testing of a large
cohort of Gulf War military pest control personnel. Results of preliminary analyses are available in a
DOD project report.836 Early findings suggest that Gulf War veterans who had the highest-level exposure
to both pesticides and PB during deployment have significantly worse performance in several
psychomotor domains than veterans with low exposures. This study is particularly noteworthy because it
evaluated a group of veterans who were highly knowledgeable concerning types and methods of pesticide
use during the Gulf War, and is evaluating combined effects of PB and pesticides in relation both to
neurocognitive measures and to multisymptom illness. The Committee looks forward to reviewing final
results from this study as they become available.

Brain and Central Nervous System  241

As previously described, VA investigators have conducted periodic examinations of a small cohort of
Gulf War veterans with high-level exposure to depleted uranium (DU) resulting from friendly fire
incidents. The project did not specifically evaluate DU exposure, or compare outcomes in veterans
exposed vs. not exposed to DU. Investigators did report, however, that in several of the longitudinal
clinical evaluations, veterans with the highest levels of circulating uranium exhibited poorer accuracy on
automated neurocognitive tests than veterans with lower-level circulating uranium.994,997,998 Differences
were statistically significant only in the 1997 evaluation, and investigators indicated that identified
differences were driven by a subset of individuals who had suffered severe medical and psychiatric
complications from their injuries. Therefore, there is no clear indication of whether or not circulating
levels of DU are associated with identifiable neurocognitive deficits.
Two additional studies have assessed neurocognitive function in relation to a generalized “total exposure
burden” measure that combined self-reports of multiple different deployment exposures such as oil fire
smoke, combat, poor sanitation, and vehicle exhaust.1409,1708 Measured neurocognitive deficits were not
associated with exposure levels measured in this way. This supports other indications that identified
associations between neurocognitive deficits and self-reported exposure to PB, chemical weapons, and
pesticides are exposure-specific, that is, not attributable to greater endorsement of exposures, overall, by
symptomatic veterans.
In summary, neuropsychological studies in Gulf War veterans consistently indicate that symptomatic
veterans are affected by persistent, but subtle, "subclinical" central nervous system damage. Symptomatic
veterans exhibit decrements in attention and executive system functioning, memory, visuospatial skills,
psychomotor functioning, and mood. In some instances, study results reflected slowed response latencies
across several cognitive domains. Measured deficits are generally modest and are not identified in all
Gulf War veterans with cognitive symptoms. Characterizing Gulf war illness-related cognitive effects
requires careful testing and analytic methods, involving comparisons between symptomatic Gulf War
veterans and healthy controls, with appropriate adjustments for psychiatric and other confounders.
Neuropsychological research involving broad comparisons of deployed Gulf War veterans, overall, with
nondeployed veterans, has provided limited information relevant to Gulf War illness. In contrast,
comparisons between symptomatic and healthy Gulf War veterans consistently identify subtle
neurocognitive decrements not explained by PTSD or other psychological conditions. A number of
studies have indicated that research on identifiable veteran subgroups—those with more pronounced
cognitive impairment and those with differing exposure histories, is likely to be most informative. This
includes findings from several studies that neurocognitive decrements in Gulf War veterans are associated
with exposure to pesticides, PB, and nerve agents during Gulf War deployment.
Assessment of Audiovestibular Function and Postural Stability
Veterans with Gulf War illness consistently report multiple symptoms suggestive of central nervous
system alterations. Dizziness and balance difficulties are common, and figure prominently in two Gulf
War illness case definitions.565,752 Two research teams have conducted investigations to determine if
these problems relate to measurable organic irregularities associated with balance. University of Texas
Southwestern investigators identified a variety of audiovestibular abnormalities in symptomatic
veterans.563,1304 These included greater interocular asymmetry in saccadic velocity and rotation-induced
nystagmus, particularly among veterans meeting criteria for Haley Syndrome 2, the group in whom dizzy
spells were most frequent.
Symptomatic Gulf War veterans were also evaluated on measures of sensory organization and postural
sway by investigators at the East Orange, New Jersey, VA. Preliminary results were presented to the
Committee by Dr. Thomas Findley438 and additional details presented at the 2004 conference of the

242  Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness

American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation.27 Significant abnormalities related to
postural stability and sensory organization were identified in symptomatic veterans: over 50 percent
scored more than 2 standard deviations below normal on quantitative balance testing, compared to 10
percent of healthy controls. Only methodological papers related to this study have been published in the
peer reviewed literature, however.233,234
Autonomic Nervous System Alterations in Gulf War Veterans
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the part of the nervous system that regulates involuntary, or
“automatic” physiological activities. The body’s ability to maintain normal organ function and respond to
changing biological conditions depends on ANS regulation of processes such as circulation, breathing,
digestion, and temperature control. Autonomic neurons connect the brain and spinal cord with all major
organs and glands of the body via its three major components, the sympathetic, parasympathetic, and
enteric nervous systems. Signaling utilizes the neurotransmitters acetylcholine and norepinephrine, as
well as a variety of other chemical messengers. Autonomic pathology can be associated with diverse
symptoms such as dizziness, weakness, digestive abnormalities, and sexual dysfunction, and can also be
an important feature of conditions such as diabetes and Parkinson’s disease.457,537,935,1368 Different aspects
of autonomic function can be evaluated in different ways; no single test is all inclusive.936 Autonomic
tests frequently assess ANS regulation of cardiovascular function, by determining effects of different
types of physiological challenges on parameters related to heart rate and blood pressure.
A potential link between Gulf War illness and ANS dysregulation has been posited from several
perspectives. These include concern about effects of cholinergic exposures during the war,740,1071 the
possible relationship of many Gulf War illness symptoms to ANS dysregulation, and observed ANS
alterations in multisymptom conditions like chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia. One of the
earliest reports of a possible autonomic problem in Gulf War veterans came from a study presented at a
federal Gulf War research conference. Investigators from the Detroit VA identified an excess of gall
bladder disease requiring surgery in Gulf War veterans and hypothesized the condition could be the result
of bile stasis due to autonomic dysregulation.1049 Since then, multiple research teams have evaluated
autonomic function more directly in symptomatic veterans, using a variety of testing methods. Key
findings from published studies are summarized in Table 4.
Additional information on autonomic testing of symptomatic Gulf War veterans has been provided by
two federally-funded research projects. Preliminary results from a project conducted by Midwest
Research Institute were presented to the Committee by Dr. Antonio Sastre.1352 Findings from this and
additional Gulf War autonomic research conducted at Georgetown University are publicly available in
Department of Defense project reports, but have not been published in research journals.251,1353 Findings
are included in the summary discussion here because the projects were, in some respects, more
comprehensive than other Gulf War ANS studies and provide context for the published studies listed in
Table 4. Key findings from the two additional federal Gulf War ANS projects are summarized in Table 5.
As shown in the tables, studies have identified a variety of ANS measures that significantly distinguish
veterans with Gulf War illness from healthy controls, using different testing methods and evaluating
different Gulf War illness populations. The diversity of study approaches used and groups evaluated
make direct comparison of study results problematic, although a number of commonalities can be
identified.
First, it appears, from all but one of the studies listed, that veterans with Gulf War illness differ
significantly from healthy controls on multiple measures of autonomic function. Studies identified few or
no differences in baseline cardiovascular parameters, but significant differences in response to

Autonomic Nervous System  243

Table 4. Published Studies of Autonomic Function in Symptomatic Gulf War Veterans

Study
Davis
2000

321

Group Studied

Autonomic Tests

14 GWV with CFS or NMH during 3-stage tilt table
ICF, 27 GWV and
testing (isoproterenol in
nonveteran controls stages 2 and 3)

Key Findings
Sign. more symptomatic GWV had NMH response to
tilt in stage 1 and overall. Symptomatic GWV had
sign. greater systolic BP, HR, and change in HR with
stage 1 tilt.

Peckerman1184,1185 51-55 GWV with CFS
2000, 2003
or ICF (16 with
PTSD), 42-47 GWV
controls

BP responses to speech and
arithmetic stress tests, cold
pressor test, BP change
between supine and standing
positions

Symptomatic GWV had sign. less BP response to
cognitive stressors, responses correlated with
symptom severity and functional impairment. BP
differences were most pronounced in symptomatic
GWV with PTSD. No differences on cold pressor test.

Sharief1397
2002

39 symptomatic
GWV, 18 GWV
controls

Valsalva ratio, standing ratio,
sympathetic skin response

Findings reported as “no real differences” on any tests
(statistical results not provided).

Fiedler433
2004

12 GWV with CFS,
19 GWV controls

BP and HRV response to
diesel vapor exposure

Symptomatic GWV had sign. increased systolic BP
and respiratory variability response to diesel vapors.
They also had blunted reactivity to (less increase in
BP, HRV) and recovery from behavioral tasks in the
presence of diesel exposure, but not in the absence of
exposure.

Stein1481
2004

11 GWV with CMI (6 24 hour electrocardiogram
male/5 female), 26
FM patients, 36
controls

GWV had sign. lower 24-hour short term high
frequency HRV than controls. Males and females
differed on multiple HRV measures over the 24 hour
period. Overall, female GWV and FM patients had
sign less. HRV than controls and male patients.

Haley569
2004

21 GWV with Haley
syndromes, 17
veteran controls

24 hour electrocardiogram
and BP, Valsalva ratio, tests
of sympathetic function
(silastic sweat imprint,
sympathetic skin response)

Symptomatic veterans had sign. less nighttime
increase in HRV high frequency power and less
decrease in nighttime HR than healthy controls. No
differences on measures of circadian BP, Valsalva
ratio, sympathetic function tests.

Lucas937
2005

49 GWV with CMI, 44
GWV, 45
nondeployed veteran
controls

BP, HR, respiratory rate, endtidal CO2, symptoms, and
NMH in relation to 2 stage tilt
test (isoproterenol in stage 2)

Veterans with CMI had sign. more and faster onset of
symptoms during tilt than controls. Symptomatic
GWV had nonsign. higher rate of NMH, sign. higher
respiratory rate, and sign. lower tidal CO2 with stage 1
tilt.

Abbreviations: GWV = Gulf War veterans, CFS = chronic fatigue syndrome, ICF = idiopathic chronic fatigue, NMH = neurally mediated
hypotension, PTSD = posttraumatic stress disorder, FM = fibromyalgia, CMI = chronic multisymptom illness,464 BP = blood pressure,
HR = heart rate, HRV heart rate variability, sign. = statistically significant

physiological challenges. Findings most often indicated a blunted, or reduced, autonomic response to
those challenges.321,433,1185,1353 In addition, both published studies that monitored electrocardiograms over
a 24-hour period identified significantly diminished heart rate variability in the high frequency range in
symptomatic Gulf War veterans—observed over a 24-hour period in one study, and during nighttime
hours in the other.569,1481 Second, results of these studies indicate that methodology is extremely
important in understanding ANS function in Gulf War illness. All three studies that tested ANS function
using the Valsalva maneuver, for example, found no difference between cases and controls, indicating

244  Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness

Table 5. Additional Results from Federally-Funded Gulf War Autonomic Research

Study
251

Group Studied

Autonomic Tests

Key Findings

Clauw
2001

17 symptomatic GWV, 24 hour electrocardiogram No differences in baseline HR and BP. GWV had sign. greater
31 controls
and effects of tilt testing on diastolic BP increase response to tilt and sign. greater daytime
HR and HRV
low frequency HRV than controls that, unlike controls, dropped
significantly during the night .

Sastre1353
2004

49 GWV with GWI
(KS), 19 GWV and 23
nondeployed veteran
controls

Continuous BP and
electrocardiogram during
deep breathing, sustained
hand grip, Valsalva
maneuver, arithmetic
stress, emotional stressor,
and tilt testing

Limited case/control BP and HR differences with breathing and
emotional stressors, no differences with Valsalva, arithmetic or
hand grip stress. Cases had sign. higher mean BP at baseline,
numerous sign. case/control HRV differences during and after
tilt. GWI cases had sign. less HR and HRV response to tilt in
both spectral and time domains (lower total power, low frequency
power, SDNN, and %NN).

Abbreviations: GWV = Gulf War veterans, GWI (KS) = Gulf War illness, defined using Kansas criteria,1476 BP = blood pressure, HR = heart rate,
HRV heart rate variability, NN = time interval between normal beats in electrocardiogram, SDNN = standard deviation of NN intervals, %NN =
the proportion on NN intervals greater than 50 msec., sign. = statistically significant

that pathways involved in this test are not associated with Gulf War illness.569,1353,1397 Alterations in
sympathetic skin response and simple assessments of cardiovascular changes with standing also were not
linked with Gulf War illness in several studies.569,1185,1397 The only study that found no ANS differences
between symptomatic Gulf War veterans and controls relied on three tests also shown by other studies not
to be informative.1397 In contrast, significant differences between cases and controls were demonstrated in
all studies that assessed ANS function using tilt table testing and/or 24-hour
electrocardiogram.251,321,569,937,1353,1481 It is important to emphasize, therefore, that ANS research in Gulf
War veterans requires the use of appropriate ANS testing methods, and that reliable conclusions about
ANS function cannot be based on tests that are not informative in this population.686,1310,1397
In addition, the specific ANS differences associated with Gulf War illness varied from study to study. In
general, it appears that more pronounced ANS differences were identified in studies that used more
symptomatic, narrowly-defined Gulf War illness “case” subjects. Gulf War veterans who meet case
criteria for chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), for example, are required to be more highly symptomatic
than cases defined according to the less restrictively defined chronic multisymptom illness (CMI).465 In
tilt table testing, Gulf War veterans with CFS had significantly higher rates of neurally mediated
hypotension (NMH) than healthy controls.321 Using a similar tilt testing protocol, however, veterans who
met CMI criteria had only a nonsignificant excess of NMH, but did have a pronounced symptomatic
responses to tilt.937
In addition to differences associated with case definition, studies with small sample sizes generally
identified fewer significant ANS findings than larger studies. Studies have also indicated that ANS
function may vary in different veteran subgroups. Single studies have reported that some ANS findings
were more pronounced in symptomatic veterans who also had PTSD,1184 and in female compared to male
veterans.1481 This suggests that sample size and selection can have important effects on the types of ANS
findings obtained, and on whether Gulf War illness-related distinctions are identified at all. For example,
the study that identified pronounced ANS distinctions between male and female Gulf War veterans, but
less difference between Gulf War illness cases and controls, relied on a sample of just 11 Gulf War
veterans.

Autonomic Nervous System  245

Many of the research limitations described appear to have been addressed in the Midwest Research
Institute project, which identified the most extensive ANS differences between Gulf War illness cases and
healthy veteran controls.1353 The project administered a multifaceted ANS battery to a relatively large,
population-based sample of Gulf War-era veteran cases and controls, and identified Gulf War illness
cases using a validated case definition. Some ANS tests identified no differences between cases and
controls, while others identified multiple ANS differences that were internally consistent. The Committee
is troubled that these results have not yet been published, however. Still, the consistent and extensive
Gulf War illness-related ANS findings identified in this project support the importance of using more
thorough testing protocols in suitably-sized and defined Gulf War illness case and control groups. The
Committee urges these investigators to publish their findings at the earliest opportunity and looks forward
to reviewing them further at that time.
Despite consistent indications that symptomatic Gulf War veterans differ significantly from healthy
controls on ANS measures, the variability and limitations of current studies do not allow a clear
characterization of Gulf War illness-related autonomic dysfunction. Individual findings appear to suggest
alterations in central,1185 parasympathetic,569,1481 or sympathetic251,1481 ANS processes, or a combination of
these.1353 Understanding the physiological implications of these findings is also complex.
Neurophysiologists do not universally agree on how some ANS alterations are best interpreted, for
example, whether HRV frequencies in different ranges clearly reflect sympathetic tone, parasympathetic
tone, or aspects of both. 385,1169,1527 More comprehensive research is needed to better understand existing
ANS findings and further characterize autonomic function in symptomatic Gulf War veterans.

Neuromuscular and Sensory Findings in Gulf War Veterans
Symptoms reported by Gulf War veterans frequently include muscle pain and weakness and can also
include numbness, and tingling sensations in the extremities. Such symptoms potentially indicate
abnormalities in peripheral nerve function related to sensation and motor function. In addition to research
on central nervous system and autonomic function in veterans with Gulf War illness, multiple studies
have tested peripheral nerve parameters associated with sensory and neuromuscular function.
Theories concerning possible causes of muscle weakness and fatigue in Gulf War veterans have included
suggestions that exposure to acetylcholinesterase inhibitors may have had persistent adverse effects on
neuromuscular junctions. As previously described, peripheral neuropathy is a characteristic feature of the
delayed neurotoxic condition associated with organophosphate poisoning.934 One large survey of British
Gulf War veterans queried veterans in detail about the presence and severity of numbness and tingling in
each limb to identify patterns indicative of peripheral neuropathy. Ten percent of Gulf War veterans had
symptoms suggestive of peripheral neuropathy, with highest rates among veterans who reported handling
pesticides and experiencing side effects from pyridostigmine bromide pills during deployment.241
Several of the largest U.S. Gulf War studies that assessed peripheral nerve function compared measures
obtained in all deployed Gulf War veterans with those of veterans who did not serve in the Gulf War.
These studies, summarized in Table 6, combine clinical results from symptomatic and healthy Gulf War
veterans and so do not provide information specifically related to Gulf War illness. In the large VA
clinical study that compared Gulf War with nondeployed era veterans, Gulf War deployment was not
associated with excess rates of peripheral neuropathy.319 Similarly, two additional studies reported no
significant differences in peripheral nerve or muscle strength measures between Gulf War veterans, as a
group, and veterans who did not serve in the Gulf War.

246  Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness

Table 6. Studies Assessing Sensory and Neuromuscular Function
in Gulf War Veterans, Not Differentiated by Health Status

Study

Groups Studied
738

Parameter(s) evaluated

Key Findings

Kaiser
2000

527 GWV Seabees, 969 Handgrip strength
nondeployed GW-era
Seabees

No differences in muscular strength between GWV and
nondeployed veterans. No associations between
muscular strength and use of PB or insecticides.

Joseph729
2004

56 GWV and 120 other
veterans referred to a
physical medicine/
rehabilitation clinic

GWV referrals had sign. fewer confirmed cases of
radiculopathy, no sign. difference in confirmed cases of
generalized peripheral neuropathy or mononeuropathy.

Davis319
Eisen393
2004,2005

1,061 Gulf War and
Neurological examination
1,128 nondeployed GW- (reflex and manual muscle
era veterans
testing, sensory testing),
nerve conduction studies

Motor and sensory nerve
conduction tests, needle
EMG

Deployed GWV had sign. more symptoms of limb
numbness or tingling. No sign. difference in rates of
diagnosed peripheral neuropathy based on
abnormalities on exam or nerve conduction studies.
Group results for specific tests not reported.

Abbreviations: GW = Gulf War, GWV = Gulf War veterans, PB = pyridostigmine bromide, EMG = electromyography,
sign.= statistically significant

Most Gulf War studies in this area, however, have evaluated sensory and neuromuscular parameters
specifically in symptomatic Gulf War veterans. Results of these studies are more relevant to Gulf War
illness, and are summarized in Table 7. As shown, multiple studies used a variety of testing methods to
objectively measure sensory and motor nerve function and muscle strength in symptomatic Gulf War
veterans. Several studies focused specifically on Gulf War veterans who had pronounced symptoms of
muscle weakness, numbness, and pain.
Despite the prominence of symptoms of this type in Gulf War veterans, very few studies have identified
any objective indications of peripheral neuropathy or abnormal muscle function in symptomatic veterans.
Standard neurological examinations revealed very few abnormalities and no significant differences
between symptomatic and healthy veterans. This parallels the sparsity of neurological findings identified,
overall, in Gulf War studies that have included physical examinations.464,788,878,893 In addition,
electrodiagnostic testing using electromyography (EMG) and nerve conduction tests identified few
abnormalities or significant differences related to Gulf War illness.
Four studies identified measurable, but limited, peripheral nerve findings in symptomatic Gulf War
veterans.160,563,704,1186 Three indicated that symptomatic veterans have significantly higher (less sensitive)
sensory thresholds than well veterans. These included two early studies—one from the U.K. and one
from the University of Texas Southwestern—which reported that symptomatic Gulf War veterans had
elevated cold sensory thresholds.563,704 A third study from the East Orange, New Jersey, VA reported that
symptomatic veterans had elevated thresholds for detecting light touch.1186 The New Jersey study also
found that higher tactile thresholds in both symptomatic and healthy Gulf War veterans were strongly
associated with use of pyridostigmine bromide during the war.
Findings of small sensory fiber abnormalities in Gulf War veterans can only be considered preliminary,
however. The two studies that reported cold threshold abnormalities relied on very small,
nonrepresentative samples—14 symptomatic British veterans from a veterans’ organization704 and five
symptomatic U.S. Navy Seabees from a single reserve unit.563 The New Jersey study that identified
elevated tactile thresholds utilized a larger and more diverse sample of symptomatic Gulf War

Neuromuscular and Sensory Findings  247

Table 7. Studies Assessing Sensory and Neuromuscular Function
in Symptomatic Gulf War Veterans

Study

Groups Studied

Parameter(s) evaluated

704

14 symptomatic GWV, 13
civilian controls

Heat, cold, and vibratory sensory Symptomatic GWV had sign. higher cold threshold, greater
testing; motor and sensory nerve sural nerve latency, and reduced median nerve sensory
conduction, needle EMG
action potential compared to controls. No case/control
differences on other measures.

Amato46
1997

20 GWV referred for
neuromuscular evaluation
with severe muscle
weakness or pain (no
controls)

Serum CK, muscle strength
tests, nerve conduction studies,
repetitive nerve stimulation,
quantitative and single-fiber
EMG, muscle biopsies

All GWV had normal muscle strength and tone, no evidence
of polyneuropathy. 6 GWV had mildly elevated CK, 2 had
abnormal nerve conduction. EMGs were normal except for 1
GWV with single-fiber jitter. 5 GWV had nonspecific
abnormalities on muscle biopsy.

Haley563
1997

23 male GWV with Haley
syndromes, 10 GWV
controls, 10 nonveteran
controls

Somatosensory evoked
potentials in all subjects. In 5
cases: nerve conduction studies,
quantitative and single fiber
EMG, sensory testing (heat,
cold, vibration)

Syndrome 2 cases had prolonged mean LP-P37 latency,
syndrome 3 cases had prolonged PF-LP latency. No
case/control differences in evoked potential abnormalities. All
5 cases tested had cold threshold abnormalities, 3 had
abnormal vibratory threshold. Normal nerve conduction,
EMGs.

Tactile, thermal, and vibratory
sensory testing

Symptomatic GWV had sign. higher tactile thresholds than
controls. No case/control differences in thermal and vibratory
tests. In all GWV, elevated tactile thresholds were sign.
associated with using PB and burning human waste in
theater.

Jamal
1996

Peckerman1186 29 male GWV with CFS,
1999
31 GWV controls

Key Findings

Bourdette160
2001

244 GWV with GWUI, 107 Handgrip strength in fatigued
GWV controls
cases, nerve conduction studies
and EMG in 13 veterans with
neurological exam abnormalities

RiveraZayas1293
2001

12 GWV with 2 or more
symptoms of peripheral
neuropathy (no controls)

Reflex and manual muscle tests, No reflex or muscle abnormalities on physical exam. 2 GWV
motor and sensory nerve
had nerve conduction abnormalities consistent with carpal
conduction studies, needle EMG tunnel syndrome, all other test results normal.

Sharief1397
2002

49 male GWV with > 4
neuromuscular symptoms,
26 male GWV controls (< 2
neuromuscular symptoms)

Neurological exams, motor and
sensory nerve conduction
studies, thermal and vibratory
sensory tests, needle and
concentric single fiber EMG

No abnormalities on reflex or manual muscle testing. No
differences between ill GWV and controls on sensory or motor
nerve conduction or on sensory thresholds. All EMG results
within normal range, no differences between ill and well GWV.

Rose1311
2004

49 male GWV with > 4
neuromuscular symptoms,
26 male GWV controls (< 2
neuromuscular symptoms)

Myometric measures of muscle
strength and static and dynamic
fatigue in 8 muscle groups,
handgrip fatigue, muscle
biopsies, glycolytic activity

No sign. differences in quantitative measures of muscle
strength and fatigue. Measured muscle fatigue levels
generally were not correlated with veteran-perceived fatigue.
No case/control differences in muscle biopsies, fiber type
ratios, or muscle atrophy. Symptomatic GWV required sign.
more effort on exercise test, and had sign. higher plasma
lactate levels.

Blanchard142
2006

327 GWV with CMI, 708
GWV controls

Neurological exam, sensory and No association between CMI and peripheral neuropathy in
nerve conduction studies
GWV or era veterans.

Sign. more GWUI cases had reflex abnormalities. Cases with
unexplained fatigue had sign. less handgrip strength than
controls.15 of 23 GWUI cases with peripheral neurological
symptoms had abnormal findings on neuro exam (distal
sensory impairment, abnormal reflexes). None had nerve
conduction abnormalities,1 of 13 had EMG abnormality.

Abbreviations: GWV = Gulf War veterans, CMI = chronic multisymptom illness,464 CFS = chronic fatigue syndrome, GWUI = Gulf War
unexplained illness (defined by study), EMG = electromyography, CK = creatine kinase, LP = lumbar potential, P37 = cerebral cortical potential,
PF = popliteal fossa potential, PB = pyridostigmine bromide, sign. = statistically significant

248  Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness

veterans.1186 Just one other study tested temperature thresholds—the King’s College study of British
veterans—and found no significant differences in symptomatic Gulf War veterans.1397
Studies of symptomatic Gulf War veterans have also identified very few abnormalities related to muscle
function, and none indicative of diagnosable muscle pathology. The most comprehensive muscle
function study found that symptomatic British Gulf War veterans required significantly more effort to
perform a subanaerobic exercise test than healthy veterans, and produced significantly higher plasma
lactate levels with exercise.1311 Investigators suggested that this indicated mitochondrial inefficiency in
symptomatic Gulf War veterans. Lactate levels were not as high as those associated with traditional
mitochondrial disease, however, and few mitochondrial and muscle fiber abnormalities were identified in
muscle biopsies.
Overall, the majority of research studies that have assessed peripheral sensory and neuromuscular
function in Gulf War veterans have not identified objective indicators of pathology. Standard clinical
examination, EMG, and nerve conduction tests consistently provide no indication that symptomatic
veterans are affected by generalized polyneuropathies or abnormal neuromuscular transmission. It is
important to note, however, that the one type of abnormality identified in several studies related to altered
sensory thresholds. These findings suggest that some symptomatic Gulf War veterans may have subtle
small sensory fiber neuropathies, abnormalities that would not be detected by methods (nerve conduction
studies, EMGs, neurological examinations) used in most of the studies listed in Tables 6 and 7. It is
possible that such abnormalities are more prominent in more highly symptomatic veterans, like the cases
evaluated in the Texas and New Jersey studies, or among veterans with specific exposures in theater, as
suggested by the New Jersey study.1186
Even if these more subtle sensory findings are confirmed by larger studies, consistent findings that Gulf
War veterans are not affected by generalized polyneuropathies or abnormal neuromuscular transmission
suggest that veterans’ neuromuscular symptoms are not attributable to overt muscle damage or peripheral
nerve pathology. Alternate explanations include the possible contribution of lower-level mitochondrial
insufficiency, suggested by one study, and alterations in central nervous system processing of peripheral
sensorimotor input.
Neuroendocrine Alterations in Gulf War Veterans
Elevated rates of diagnosable endocrine disorders such as diabetes and thyroid disease have not been
associated with Gulf War service.46,142,393,464,751,1476 Endocrine measures not routinely evaluated in
standard medical workups have only minimally been assessed, however. As previously described,
evaluations of the cohort of Gulf War veterans with high-level exposure to depleted uranium identified
first elevated, then reduced serum levels of prolactin in this group.992,997 One MR spectroscopy study of
symptomatic Gulf War veterans also reported a significant correlation between reduced neuronal function
in the left basal ganglia and elevated central dopamine activity.562
Function of the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis is known to be altered in several conditions
that have affected Gulf War veterans since the war, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and
chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS).333 In other populations, PTSD is associated with reduced baseline levels
of serum cortisol, elevated levels of corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF), increased levels of
glucocorticoid receptors and an enhanced cortisol and ACTH suppression response to low-dose
dexamethasone (DEX) challenge.1822-1824 One small study assessed eight active duty Gulf War veterans
within 18 months of their return from theater. Findings indicated that, as expected, posttraumatic
symptoms were correlated with lower salivary cortisol levels. All Gulf War veterans who took the DEX,
however, had a dramatically enhanced cortisol suppression response, independent of the effects of combat
or posttraumatic symptoms.785,786

Neuroendocrine Findings  249

In several recently-reported studies, investigators at the Bronx VA assessed HPA parameters in Gulf War
veterans in more detail. Gulf War veterans with and without PTSD were compared to nondeployed
controls. No differences in baseline levels of cortisol, ACTH, or glucocorticoid receptors were identified
between the three groups. However, Gulf War veterans responded to low dose DEX with significantly
greater suppression of both ACTH501 and cortisol502 than nondeployed veterans. Identified differences
were associated with Gulf War deployment, overall, but were unrelated to combat exposure or whether
veterans had PTSD. In Gulf War veterans, the degree of ACTH suppression was significantly related,
instead, to veterans’ symptoms, most prominently musculoskeletal symptoms. Cortisol suppression was
also significantly related to musculoskeletal symptoms in Gulf War veterans and significantly more
pronounced in veterans who reported using pyridostigmine bromide in theater.502
Twenty-four hour ACTH levels were also found to be significantly reduced among Gulf War veterans
who did not have PTSD.503 Lowered ACTH values were associated with veterans’ reported use of
pesticides and pyridostigmine bromide during deployment, especially in veterans who had experienced
acute symptoms at the time of exposure. The ratio of cortisol to ACTH was also significantly elevated in
Gulf War veterans, and significantly associated with veterans’ cognitive and mood symptoms. None of
the 24-hour HPA measures were associated with combat stress, with other self-reported exposures during
deployment, or with PTSD.
This group of studies provides a first detailed look at HPA function in Gulf War veterans. Results
indicate that Gulf War service, and symptoms in Gulf War veterans, are associated with significant
alterations in HPA function, many years after the war. Identified changes are independent of combat
stress, but significantly correlated with veterans’ use of pesticides and/or pyridostigmine bromide during
deployment. It is important to note that identified HPA abnormalities in Gulf War veterans constitute a
unique profile, which is biologically distinct from the HPA profile associated with PTSD.500 Additional
research on HPA function in symptomatic Gulf War veterans is needed, however, and the Committee
looks forward to reviewing findings from ongoing research at the Bronx VAMC, as well as related
research at the St. Louis and East Orange, New Jersey VAMCs.
Vulnerability to Neurotoxicants: Variation in Genotype and Activity of Protective
Enzymes
A question often asked about Gulf War illness is why some Gulf War military personnel developed
chronic symptoms during and after deployment, while others who served along side them remained well.
There is more than one possible reason for this. Genetic and other differences between individuals can
dictate different reactions to a given exposure. Additionally, different individuals encountered varying
doses and combinations of exposures in theater, over different durations. Identifying specific factors
responsible for these differences would provide important insights into the biological nature of Gulf War
illness, as well as its causes. It could also help prevent similar problems in future deployments.
A large body of research, from different sectors, has demonstrated that some individuals are more
vulnerable to adverse effects of certain chemicals than others.469,884,928,983,1533 Such differences relate to
variability in biological processes associated with binding, metabolizing, and clearing these chemicals
from the body. The enzyme paraoxonase (PON1), for example, circulates in the blood and hydrolyzes
organophosphate compounds, converting them to relatively harmless chemicals that are excreted from the
body. There is more than one form of this enzyme, and inherited variations determine what form and how
much the body produces. Individuals who produce different types and amounts of PON1 differ,
sometimes dramatically, in their ability to neutralize organophosphate compounds.281,317,877
Other enzyme systems are also involved in neutralizing neurotoxic chemicals, including some that are not
as well characterized as PON1.468,602,1130,1440 In several studies, both Gulf War illness and service in the

250  Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness

Gulf War theater have been linked to variation in PON1 measures. Preliminary information is also
available concerning a possible link between Gulf War illness and another enzyme, butyrylcholinesterase,
which also plays an important role in protecting the body from some types of chemical exposures
associated with the Gulf War.
Paraoxonase (PON1) variability and Gulf War illness. Differences in PON1 genotype,
concentration, and activity levels all contribute to individual variability in the degree to which
organophosphate chemicals are neutralized by the body. PON1 genetic variants produce different
isozyme forms that hydrolyze specific organophosphate chemicals at different rates. The isoform
containing the amino acid glutamine (Q) at gene locus 192 hydrolyzes diazinon, sarin, and soman at a
high rate, but paraoxon more slowly. The isoform with arginine (R) at position 192 hydrolyzes paraoxon
at a high rate, and hydrolyzes chlorpyrifos more efficiently than the Q form.262,317,468 Other PON1
polymorphisms, including the L/M (leucine/methionine) substitution at position 55, are also associated
with variations that affect organophosphate detoxification.176,281,1150 PON1 enzyme activity can also vary
substantially among people with the same genotype, and has been shown to be affected by factors such as
diet, medical conditions, smoking, medications, and some environmental chemicals.282,325,1457
In laboratory studies, information on PON1 activity is only meaningful in the context of the specific
substrate in which enzyme activity is measured. Similarly, in chemically-exposed human populations,
whether a given PON1 genotype provides better protection or increased vulnerability depends on the
chemical exposure in question.
Recent studies have identified significant links between PON1 variability and conditions that are relevant
to Gulf War illness. As previously described, a chronic symptomatic illness similar to Gulf War illness
affects some British sheep farmers who regularly use a chemical sheep dip containing organophosphate
pesticides. A large study has reported that sheep farmers with this illness were significantly more likely
to have at least one R allele at PON1 site 192 than healthy farmers, who were more commonly QQ
homozygotes. Compared to healthy sheep farmers, symptomatic farmers exhibited poorer PON1
hydrolysis of diazinon, an organophosphate chemical used in sheep dip.242,1223
Studies of both Polish and North American populations have linked PON genetic polymorphisms to nonfamilial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). In the Polish study, significantly more ALS patients than
controls had the R allele at PON1 position 192, and a second polymorphism in the PON2 gene, which
codes for a similar enzyme widely distributed in the body.1426 The North American study identified PON
gene cluster variants that significantly distinguished sporadic ALS cases from healthy controls and
identified both protective and detrimental ALS haplotypes.1338 Additional research, from multiple
studies, links Parkinson’s disease to increased frequency of the L allele at PON1 position 55.1840 Multiple
chemical sensitivity has also been associated with higher rates of PON1 heterozygosity at positions 55
and 192.1005 For all these conditions, investigators concluded that the disease-PON1 connection indicates
that interaction between an environmental exposure and genetic vulnerability leads to increased risk for
developing the disease.
Results from published studies that have evaluated PON1 measures in Gulf War veterans are summarized
in Table 8. These studies addressed different questions in different ways, in case and control populations
that differed markedly from one another. Additional information on the PON1-Gulf War illness
relationship is available from two federally-funded projects whose results have not been published.
Findings were presented to the Committee for discussion at public meetings and/or are available in
agency research reports. Results from these projects can only be considered preliminary pending peer
review and publication, but provide additional insights and context for the published research findings.

Vulnerability to Neurotoxicants  251

Five of the six Gulf War projects identified significant PON1 differences related to Gulf War illness or,
more generally, with Gulf War service. Specific findings from these studies have varied, however,
reflecting different types of data obtained to address different questions. As a result, existing studies do
not provide a complete understanding of the Gulf War illness-PON1 relationship. The Committee
examined the study questions, measures, and outcomes evaluated by each study to identify commonalities
and differences, and to determine what issues remain.
The earliest study, from the University of Texas Southwestern (UTSW) evaluated PON1 measures in 25
ill veterans from a single Navy reserve unit, compared to 20 veteran controls. Investigators reported
differences between cases and controls associated both with PON1 genotype and enzyme activity.561
Overall, PON1 activity using phenyl acetate as a substrate (also referred to as arylesterase activity) was
lower in cases than controls—significantly lower for the type Q isozyme, which provides the most
efficient hydrolysis of sarin. A follow up study, in fact, indicated that serum hydrolysis of sarin was
highly correlated with PON1 type Q isozyme activity in the veterans studied, reflecting a reduced
capacity for neutralizing sarin in this group.853 In contrast, PON1 activity using paraoxon as a substrate
was nonsignificantly higher in cases than controls. Significantly more cases than controls had the R allele
at position 192, the polymorphism that provides less efficient hydrolysis of sarin. The study found no
genetic differences at locus 55 and did not evaluate differences between deployed and nondeployed
veterans.
In a second, larger study, investigators from the University of Manchester reported that 152 British Gulf
War veterans who self-identified as having Gulf War illness had significantly reduced PON1 enzyme
activity, compared to controls, using paraoxon as a substrate. PON1 activity appeared to be unrelated to
disease severity; it was reduced in veterans with both low- and high-level symptomatology. No genetic
differences between groups were identified, either at position 152 or position 55, and enzyme activity was
not measured using phenyl acetate as a substrate.947 Investigators suggested their results indicated that
veterans with reduced PON1 enzyme activity, due either to environmental or unidentified genetic factors,
had developed Gulf War illness at higher rates. The control group in this study had not served in the Gulf
War, however, so it was not possible to determine whether PON1 activity differences related to Gulf War
illness specifically or, more generally, to Gulf War deployment.
A second British study compared PON1 measures in a subgroup of the most disabled Gulf War veterans
from a large population sample (“ill” Gulf War veterans) to those in three other groups: (1) other Gulf
War veterans in the sample (“well” Gulf War veterans), (2) “ill” nondeployed Gulf War-era veterans, and
(3) “ill” Bosnia veterans.645 PON1 genotype at position 192 did not differ between ill and well Gulf War
veterans, but significantly fewer ill Gulf War veterans were LM heterozygotes at position 55. Ill and well
Gulf War veterans had similar mean PON1 activity using paraoxon as a substrate. As a group, however,
Gulf War veterans had significantly lower PON1 activity than ill nondeployed and Bosnia veterans.
Investigators commented that service in the Gulf War theater, or specific exposures during deployment,
appeared to produce reduced PON1 activity that persisted many years after veterans returned from
theater. As in the earlier British study, it is difficult to disentangle “illness” effects in this study, since
the “well” Gulf War control group reported symptom levels similar to those of the “ill” Bosnia and
nondeployed Gulf War-era groups, and no “well” Bosnia or era veterans were evaluated.
The only report that identified no PON1 differences in relation to Gulf War service was a collaborative
project from the University of Iowa, the West Haven VA, and Hebrew University of Jerusalem.266 The
study analyzed enzyme activity in blood samples retained from an earlier clinical study that addressed
other, unrelated questions. Results indicated that PON1 activity did not differ between veterans who met
case criteria for chronic multisymptom illness (CMI)464 and controls. Key information was not provided,

252  Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness

Table 8. Evaluation of PON1 Genotype and Enzyme Activity in Gulf War Veterans

Study

Group Studied

Parameter/Assay

Key Findings

25 Navy Seabees with
Haley Syndromes, 10
well GWV controls, 10
nondeployed era controls

PON1 genotype (positions
192 and 55). Enzyme
activity in paraoxon, phenyl
acetate (arylesterase),
calculated Q,R–specific
arylesterase activity

GWV with Haley syndromes sign. more likely to have PON1 R
allele than controls. No sign. differences in L,M alleles. Mean
PON1 activity nonsign. higher in cases, mean arylesterase activity
nonsign lower in cases; type Q arylesterase activity sign. lower in
cases; low Q arylesterase activity also sign. associated with
having more severe side effects from PB during deployment.

Mackness947 152 GWV with self2000
reported GWI, 152
nonveteran controls

PON1 genotype (positions
192 and 55), serum PON1
concentration, enzyme
activity in paraoxon and
diazoxon

GWV with GWI had sign. lower PON1 concentration and activity
in paraoxon than controls (activity < 50% of controls), overall and
within genotype. No differences in Q,R gene frequencies or L,M
frequencies in cases vs. controls. No differences in PON1 activity
in diazoxon.

Hotopf645
2003

115 “ill” GWV, 95 “well”
GWV controls, 137 ill
nondeployed GW era
and Bosnia veterans

PON1 genotype (positions
192 and 55), enzyme
activity in paraoxon

Sign. lower proportion of ill than well GWV had LM genotype
(position 55). Overall, Gulf–deployed had sign. lower PON1
activity than non-PGW veterans. No sign. PON1 activity
difference between ill and well GWV.

Concato266
2007

140 male GWV with CMI, PON1 activity (substrate not No sign. difference in adjusted mean difference of PON1 activity
125 male GWV controls, specified)
between cases and controls, or in deployed vs. nondeployed
80 nondeployed era
veterans.
veterans (29 with CMI)

Haley
1999

561

Abbreviations: PON1 = paraoxonase, GWV = Gulf War veteran, GWI = Gulf War illness, CMI = chronic multisymptom illness,464 PB =
pyridostigmine bromide, sign. = statistically significant

however, concerning substrate and assay methods, test results, and health characteristics of the sample. It
was therefore not possible to clearly interpret these results or compare them with other studies. It is not
known, for example, how many study subjects were healthy Gulf War controls or healthy nondeployed
veterans, since subjects identified as both CMI “cases” and “controls” also had conditions evaluated in the
original clinical study—depression, cognitive dysfunction, and fibromyalgia.
The two additional federal projects that have evaluated PON1 measures in Gulf War veterans provide
information relevant to results of published articles. Investigators from the East Orange, New Jersey VA,
reported to the Committee preliminary results of analyses of PON1 activity in blood samples collected for
the large VA Gulf War clinical study of over 1,000 deployed Gulf War and 1,000 nondeployed era
veterans. Results indicated that Gulf War veterans with chronic multisymptom illness (CMI)464 had
elevated PON1 activity using paraoxon as a substrate, with the increase most pronounced in veterans who
also had PTSD.1160,1161
Preliminary results from the Midwest Research Institute project, described previously in relation to
autonomic testing, also indicated that PON1 activity using paraoxon as a substrate was significantly
higher in 40 Gulf War illness cases than in 18 healthy Gulf War controls.1353 The 18 Gulf War controls,
however, had lower PON1 activity (p=0.09) than the 15 healthy nondeployed controls evaluated for the
study. Both associations were masked when the two control groups were combined, giving the
appearance that PON1 activity did not differ between cases and controls. These preliminary findings
suggest the possibility that PON1 activity differences may be associated both with Gulf War illness and,
more generally, with Gulf War service, but in opposite directions. Such differences can be obscured
unless appropriate subgroups are evaluated.

Vulnerability to Neurotoxicants  253

Overall, differences between studies related not only to which PON1 measures were assessed, but also to
how “symptomatic” and “healthy” veterans were identified, if comparisons were made to healthy
controls, and whether controls had also served in the Gulf War. Several commonalities exist between
study findings, but the importance of specific differences are difficult to interpret without more
comprehensive evaluation of larger samples of well characterized Gulf War illness cases, healthy Gulf
War controls, and healthy nondeployed controls.
Four of the six existing Gulf War PON1 projects identified altered PON1 enzyme activity in symptomatic
veterans compared to controls, three using paraoxon as the substrate.561,947,1161,1353 The remaining study,
from UTSW, identified reduced arylesterase activity of PON1 type Q isozyme, a measure not assessed by
other studies. It is not clear whether different results from individual studies relate to chance findings, or
to actual differences that reflect PON1 factors associated with subgroups of Gulf War veterans with
different illness or exposure histories, as suggested by the New Jersey and UTSW studies. It may also be
important that only projects that compared ill Gulf War veterans to healthy Gulf War veterans found ill
veterans to have elevated PON1 activity using paraoxon as the substrate.561,1161,1353 All studies that
identified reduced PON1 hydrolysis of paraoxon in Gulf War veterans compared them to individuals who
had not served in the Gulf War.645,947,1353
A key issue not addressed by Gulf War PON1 studies relates to the important fact that the effects of
variability in PON1 hydrolyzing activity are substrate specific. While one PON1 genotype might render
an individual more vulnerable to specific types of pesticides, another would be more problematic if an
individual had been exposed to nerve agents. As a result, differences in health effects that might have
occurred in relation to different PON1 genotypes during the Gulf War would only be apparent among
subgroups of individuals with specific chemical exposures. No adverse effects or PON1-related
differences would be apparent in individuals who were not exposed to chemicals affected by their
genotype. Therefore, PON1 studies that do not assess Gulf War illness case status as a function of both
PON1 parameters and exposure history could easily mask differences related to PON1 subgroups of
importance. Unfortunately, Gulf War studies have not yet evaluated case/control outcomes in relation to
both exposures and PON1 measures.
If considered in the context of differences in methods, research questions, and study populations, results
from Gulf War PON1 studies are not so much contradictory as they are parallel findings that remain to be
reconciled. There is a general type of consistency from these studies indicating that variations in PON1
activity are linked to Gulf War service. But important questions have only been partially addressed.
More comprehensive research and analyses are needed to provide the answers needed to better
characterize the relationship of PON1 variability with Gulf War illness and/or Gulf War service.
Observed PON1 variability in relation to Gulf War service provides additional support for other types of
evidence that implicate neurotoxic exposures in the etiology of Gulf War illness. Major research issues
that remain to be addressed in relation to PON1 and the health of Gulf War veterans include: (1) whether
Gulf War service, in general, produced alterations in PON1 activity in Gulf War military personnel, and if
specific exposures in theater can account for those changes, (2) whether persistent alterations in PON1
activity put Gulf War veterans at increased risk for adverse effects of chemical exposures encountered
after their return from theater, and (3) further characterization of specific PON1 parameters and
PON1/exposure interactions associated with Gulf War illness. The Committee looks forward to
reviewing final results from the preliminary findings described, as well as results from recently-funded
Gulf War PON1 studies undertaken by UTSW and the Naval Health Research Center.1205
Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) and Gulf War illness. As previously described, the best
understood mechanism through which organophosphate and carbamate compounds exert their toxic
effects involves inhibition of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE). Another enzyme,
butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), circulates in the blood and brain and binds irreversibly to AChE-inhibiting

254  Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness

chemicals, acting as a “scavenger” that protects AChE from inhibition by these compounds. Because of
its efficiency in binding AChE-inhibitors, BChE is now being evaluated as a protective pretreatment
against nerve agents on the battlefield.1357,1389 Recent animal studies have shown that circulating BChE
spares AChE inhibition both in peripheral blood and in the brain following sarin inhalation1389 and may
directly control excess levels of brain acetylcholine when AChE levels are reduced.380,590
A number of BChE genetic variants have been identified, with different affinities for AChE-inhibiting
chemicals. Individuals with certain BChE genotypes, for example, have long been known to be at risk for
adverse effects from the use of succinylcholine as a muscle relaxant in surgery.926 Individuals with
slower-acting BChE are thought to be at potentially greater risk for adverse effects from AChE-inhibiting
pesticides and nerve agents.928
Three published studies have evaluated BChE measures in Gulf War veterans. The UTSW enzyme study
assessed BChE phenotype and enzyme activity in 25 Gulf War veterans with the three Haley syndromes,
compared to 20 veteran controls.561 Mean BChE activity levels did not differ between cases and controls,
although Gulf War illness cases were almost three times as likely to have BChE activity levels in the
lowest activity quartile, and veterans with the AU phenotype had a nearly four-fold increased risk for
having Haley Syndrome 2. Neither association was statistically significant in this relatively small group,
however. The larger British study found that Gulf War veterans who self-identified as having Gulf War
illness had significantly higher BChE enzyme activity than nonveteran controls.947 And the Iowa/West
Haven/Hebrew University collaborative study reported that mean BChE activity did not differ between
Gulf War multisymptom illness cases and controls, although it is not clear what specific measures and
comparisons were made.266
Additional information on BChE-Gulf War illness associations is provided by reports from two additional
federally-funded projects that are publicly available, but not yet published in research journals. A DOD
report on a study of 221 Gulf War veterans conducted by the University of Nebraska indicated that mean
BChE activity levels were similar in veterans who indicated they had Gulf War illness and controls. A
significant association was found between BChE genotype and Gulf War illness, however. All but one
(91%) of the 11 Gulf War veterans with the rare atypical (A) or fluoride (F) BChE alleles had Gulf War
illness symptoms. 927 Given the small number of A and F variants in this study, however, investigators
cautioned that this finding required further testing.
A second DOD-funded project, conducted by Midwest Research Institute, further evaluated the
association of BChE with Gulf War illness in 304 Gulf War veterans. Results were presented at a public
Committee meeting, and are also provided in a DOD project report.1352,1353 Mean BChE activity, again,
did not differ between Gulf War illness cases and controls. Neither were individual BChE genotypes or
specific alleles associated with Gulf War illness. As a group, veterans with the most common BChE
genotypes (U/U and U/K) were identified as “nonvariants,” and veterans with other, rarer, genotypes were
identified as BChE “variants.” As expected, the BChE variant group had significantly lower BChE
activity than nonvariants. Subgroup analyses revealed that associations between Gulf War illness and
several wartime exposures differed dramatically in BChE variants compared to nonvariants. Most
prominently, nonvariants who reported using pyridostigmine bromide (PB) were 2.7 times as likely to
have Gulf War illness as those who did not use PB. However, BChE genetic variants who used PB had a
40-fold increased risk of Gulf War illness, compared to variants who did not use PB. Although these
results can only be considered preliminary pending peer review, they suggest the importance of assessing
enzyme-exposure interactions in relation to Gulf War illness, as was previously described for PON1
research.
Overall, studies of BChE measures in relation to Gulf War illness have produced varied results. Like
PON1 studies, BChE projects are generally not directly comparable, owing to important differences in
study questions, populations, and methods. The most consistent finding, from four of the five Gulf War

Vulnerability to Neurotoxicants  255

BChE projects, was that mean BChE activity does not differ between Gulf War illness cases and controls.
More complex associations were suggested by three of the projects, however. The Nebraska study
suggested a possible link between BChE genotype and Gulf War illness, limited to the subgroup of
veterans with relatively rare genetic BChE alleles. The UTSW and Midwest Research Institute studies
suggest that Gulf War illness may be associated with BChE in subgroups of Gulf War veterans with
particularly low BChE activity. The Midwest Research Institute study also suggests that this association
is only apparent in the context of exposures in theater. That is, BChE genotype is a risk factor for Gulf
War illness only among veterans who experienced specific war-related exposures, most prominently PB.
A similar gene-exposure-illness interaction was previously suggested by the reported case of an Israeli
soldier who suffered severe symptoms after taking PB during the Gulf War.929 This soldier was
determined to be a rare AA homozygote for BChE, with dramatically reduced ability to bind carbamate
compounds. Although generally healthy before the use of PB, the soldier had previously experienced
succinylcholine-induced difficulties following surgery.
Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and Gulf War illness. A number of chemical exposures in the Gulf
War theater acutely reduce serum and brain levels of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), but only one study has
assessed AChE measures in relation to Gulf War illness. Research in other populations has shown that
individuals chronically exposed to low-level pesticides or stress express increased levels of the AChE
read-through variant, AChE-R.1024,1418,1448 Based on these reports and early indications of possible
treatment implications424,1446,1447 the Committee suggested that VA assess levels of AChE-R in veterans
with Gulf War illness. VA Office of Research and Development subsequently authorized a study to
determine whether AChE enzyme activity, more generally, was associated with anxiety and mood
disorders in Gulf War veterans previously evaluated in the Iowa clinical study. Investigators later
attempted to accommodate the Committee’s original suggestion by adding an evaluation of AChE-R in
relation to Gulf War illness to the study, but this was not accomplished because of insufficient serum.
Instead the study focused on AChE enzyme activity in relation to Gulf War deployment, as well as
anxiety disorders and multisymptom illness in Gulf War veterans.266
Study results indicated that Gulf War deployment, overall, was not associated with significant differences
in AChE activity. Mean value of AChE activity for veterans with chronic multisymptom illness (CMI)
was nonsignificantly higher than in veterans who did not have CMI. For all veterans combined (sick and
healthy), AChE activity was not significantly associated with any self-reported exposures during
deployment. Veterans who reported exposure to chemical warfare agents, however, had an adjusted mean
activity level that was 126 points lower than those not exposed, a difference that approached significance
(p=0.09).266 As previously described, results of this study are difficult to interpret. Both Gulf War illness
cases and controls had originally been recruited for a study of depression, fibromyalgia and cognitive
dysfunction, and study subjects, overall, had elevated rates of anxiety disorders. Further, the study did
not evaluate associations between AChE and Gulf War illness in veterans with different exposure
histories, particularly AChE-inhibiting chemicals. The Committee therefore concludes that the question of
whether AChE variability is associated with Gulf War illness has not been adequately addressed, and so
remains open.
Summary. Vulnerability to neurotoxicants: variation in genotype and activity of
protective enzymes. Explanations for why some Gulf War veterans developed Gulf War illness while
others remained well may relate to different exposure profiles between individuals in theater, and to
biological differences in veterans’ vulnerability to those exposures. The enzyme paraoxonase (PON1) has
an important role in neutralizing effects of organophosphate exposures, and PON1 genetic differences
have been implicated in the risk for developing conditions relevant to Gulf War service, including ALS.
Six projects have evaluated diverse PON1 measures in Gulf War veterans; five identified significant
differences in PON1 enzyme activity related to Gulf War illness and/or Gulf War deployment. Available
results, however, have provided a somewhat piecemeal look at the potentially complex relationships

256  Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness

between PON1 measures and the health of Gulf War veterans. More precise understanding of PON1
variability in relation to Gulf War illness requires more comprehensive comparisons of PON1 measures in
suitable Gulf War illness cases and healthy Gulf War and nondeployed controls. It also requires a
detailed evaluation of PON1-exposure interactions in relation to Gulf War illness and, more broadly, to
Gulf War deployment.
Gulf War illness may also be linked to biological variability related to other enzymes that protect from,
and are affected by, neurotoxic exposures. The question of whether acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
variability is associated with Gulf War illness remains open, due to limited research in this area. Three
Gulf War studies have provided preliminary indications of a possible link between BChE variability and
Gulf War illness. Several studies have reported that mean BChE enzyme activity is not related to Gulf
War illness, but provided preliminary indications that an identifiable link involves the subgroup of Gulf
War veterans with very low BChE activity. Precise understanding of BChE variability in relation to Gulf
War illness requires more thorough evaluation of interactions between BChE genetic factors, enzyme
activity, and specific exposures.
Overall, identified differences in PON1 measures, and preliminary indications related to BChE, suggest
that variability in circulating enzymes that confer protection from AChE-inhibiting chemicals rendered
some Gulf War veterans more susceptible to prolonged, adverse effects of neurotoxic exposures.
Although details of gene-enzyme-exposure interactions remain to be fully elucidated, current findings
provide support for consistent evidence from other sectors that implicates neurotoxic exposures as causal
factors in Gulf War illness.
Immune Parameters in Gulf War Veterans
The immune system, the body’s multifaceted defense system, involves the production and coordination of
diverse cells and messenger chemicals in multiple tissues and organs. This system provides the body’s
response to potential threats, on a continuing basis, and restores equilibrium in the wake of the defensive
response. Healthy immune function depends on multiple regulatory mechanisms that involve actions and
counteractions not only of immune cells, but of diverse neurological and endocrine processes.23,1485
Abnormalities in the intricate workings of the immune system, or its complex interactions with other
biological systems, can result in diverse types of pathology.
In 2001, the Research Working Group of the federal Military and Veterans Health Coordinating Board
reported on immune function in Gulf War veterans by indicating that studies had not identified excess
rates of serious infectious or autoimmune diseases in Gulf War veterans,1273 based largely on
hospitalization rates identified in military hospitals. Studies of this type do not provide satisfactory
insights into the question of immune abnormalities, however, since infectious diseases and autoimmune
diseases are not adequately tracked by hospitalization rates, and most ill Gulf War veterans were no
longer in service at the time of this assessment. In addition, the report did not consider other types of
immune alterations potentially associated with Gulf War illness.
Multiple studies have now assessed immune parameters in Gulf War veterans, as summarized in Tables 7
and 8. As shown, different immune parameters have been evaluated using varied methods in different
groups of veterans. In a general sense, results have been mixed, with some studies showing immune
alterations in symptomatic veterans, and others finding no abnormalities. But as with other areas of Gulf
War research, a simple tabulation of whether Gulf War immune studies have yielded positive or negative
results is not sufficiently informative. It is important to assess which types of immune parameters have
been found to differ in relation to veterans’ symptoms, and which have not.

Immune Parameters  257

Table 7. Immune Evaluation of Gulf War Veterans, Not Differentiated by Veterans’ Health Status

Study

Groups Evaluated

Immune Findings

Bregenholt
2001

686 Danish GWV, 231
nonveteran controls

No sign. differences in NK activity or levels of most cytokines, with possible
exception of CD2+ production of IL-2. Results unclear, due to effects of
freezing/thawing on samples.

Eisen393
2005

1061 GWV, 1128
nondeployed era veterans

No sign. differences in mean levels of total leukocytes, leukocyte counts,
ESR.

167

Abbreviations: GWV = Gulf War veterans, NK = natural killer cells, ESR = erythrocyte sedimentation rate, sign. = statistically significant

Two studies, including the large national VA clinical study, have broadly compared immune measures in
veterans who deployed to the Gulf War with those of a nondeployed reference group,167,393 as shown in
Table 7. Results reported in these studies combine data from symptomatic and healthy Gulf War
veterans, so are of limited use in understanding possible immune aspects of Gulf War illness. In both
studies, no immune findings were associated with Gulf War service, when deployed veterans were
evaluated as a single group.
The Rook hypothesis: Th1-Th2 immunity in Gulf War veterans. In 1997, Drs. Graham Rook
and Alimuddin Zumla, of University College in London, hypothesized that the symptoms of Gulf War
illness could be the result of a systemic shift towards a Th-2 immune profile.1306 The human immune
response includes two functionally distinct classes of CD4, or T-helper (Th) cells. Th-1 cells are
associated with cell-mediated immunity and phagocyte-dependent inflammation, and production of the
cytokines IL-2 and IFN-γ. Th-2 cells are associated with humoral immunity and allergy, and production
of IL-4,5,6,9,and 13. 329,1305 The suggested association of Gulf War illness with a Th1-Th2 shift
constituted a plausible and testable hypothesis, often referred to as the Rook hypothesis. According to the
original hypothesis, this shift could have been precipitated by the many vaccines received by service
members, perhaps in conjunction with deployment-related stressors and exposures.1306
The Rook hypothesis received early support from two large epidemiologic studies of British Gulf War
veterans, which found that veterans who had received a greater number of vaccines had modestly elevated
rates of multisymptom illness, compared to veterans who received fewer vaccines.241,1698 Several studies
subsequently assessed the Rook hypothesis more directly, by evaluating levels of different classes of T
lymphocytes and cytokines in veterans with Gulf War illness.
In 1999, Dr. Quanwu Zhang and colleagues from the East Orange, NJ, VA reported that compared to
healthy veteran controls, Gulf War veterans with chronic fatigue syndrome had significantly more total
lymphocytes, and significantly higher levels of mRNA for IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2 and IL-10.1835 IL-10 was
once thought to be produced by Th-2 cells, but is now known to come from multiple cell types, and to
have a role in limiting excess inflammation.1065,1556 Results of this study indicated that Gulf War illness
was associated with immune alterations, but did not support a shift towards Th-2 immune reactivity.
Findings instead suggested a possible increase in Th-1-type immunity.
A 2002 study from investigators at the Birmingham VA evaluated in vitro levels of cytokines produced
by blood cells both at rest, and after PHA stimulation.422 Supernatant levels of IL-4, associated with Th2type activation, did not differ between sick and healthy veterans. Nor did levels of IL-6, IL-10, or TNF-α.
The study did not assess levels of IL-2, but IFN-γ levels produced by cells at rest were significantly lower
in symptomatic veterans, while stimulated levels of IFN-γ were nonsignificantly higher. Results
therefore did not support the notion of Th-2 immune activation, while insights regarding Th-1 activation
were limited.

258  Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness

Table 8. Studies Comparing Immune Measures in Symptomatic Gulf War Veterans and Controls

Study
Haley
1997

563

Groups Evaluated

Immune Findings

23 GWV with Haley Syndromes, ESR, ANA, and IG levels similar in symptomatic GWV and controls.
10 GWV, 10 nondeployed controls

Zhang1835
43 GWV with CFS, 34 GWV
1999
controls
Brimacombe172
2002

Peripheral blood lymphocytes of symptomatic GWV included sign. more total T
cells and MHC II+ T cells, higher % CD3 cells, lower % NK cells, sign. higher
levels of mRNA for IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2 and IL-10. In modeling, apparent
association of factor grouping of Th-2 cytokines with CFS was related to slowed
cognitive reaction time in ill veterans.

Asa69
2000

38 symptomatic GWV, 12 GWV
controls

36/38 (95%) of symptomatic veterans had IgG antibodies to squalene, compared
to 0/12 GWV controls.

Everson422,423
2000, 2002

52 symptomatic GWV, 31 healthy
GWV controls

No differences on in vitro measures of acquired immunity, including mean levels
of mitogen-stimulated T cell proliferation, mixed leukocyte reactivity, IG
production. Antibody response to anthrax vaccine was sign. greater in healthy
GWV. NK cell activity nonsign. lower in symptomatic GWV. Unstimulated IFN-γ
sign. lower in symptomatic GWV; stimulated IFN-γ nonsign. higher.

Skowera1421
2002

130 symptomatic British GWV, 90 No difference in levels of ANAs generally, no evidence of ANAs against nuclear
healthy GWV controls
envelope antigens in either symptomatic or healthy GWV.

Skowera1420
2004

40 symptomatic British GWV, 80
healthy GWV

Symptomatic veterans had sign. elevated levels of unstimulated IL-2+ cells, IFN-γ
cells. Sign. elevated IL-10 producing cells following polyclonal stimulation.

Vojdani1734
2004

100 symptomatic GWV, 50
healthy GWV, 50 healthy
nonveteran controls

Higher proportion of symptomatic GWV had elevated T cells, elevated B cells,
elevated CD4:CD8 ratio, decreased NK activity, reduced response to PHA and
PWM, increased immune complexes, increased antibodies to myelin basic protein
and muscle.

Allen39
2006

17 symptomatic GWV, 11 healthy 12-15 years after being vaccinated in the Gulf War, GWV exhibit immune
GWV controls with vaccine records responses to anthrax and plague vaccines. Cytokine responses to vaccines were
similar in symptomatic and well GWV.

Hokama617
2007

8 GWV, 328 nonveteran CFS
patients, 52 controls

All 8 GWV, 91% of CFS patients, and 8% of controls had elevated antibody titers
for CTX, a neurotoxic lipid associated with ciguaterra poisoning.

Abbreviations: GWV = Gulf War veterans, ESR = erythrocyte sedimentation rate, ANA = antinuclear autoantibody, IG = immune globulin , NK
= natural killer cells, PHA = phytohemagglutin, PWM = pokeweed mitogen, CFS = chronic fatigue syndrome, sign. = statistically significant

Dr. Anna Skowera and colleagues at King’s College in London took a different approach by directly
assessing levels of different classes of Th cells in relation to Gulf War illness. They identified evidence
of persistent cellular immune activation in symptomatic veterans, finding significantly elevated levels of
IL-2 and IFN-γ-producing cells, in the absence of stimulation.1420 Short term in vitro polyclonal
stimulation resulted in significantly greater memory cell production of IL-10 in ill veterans, compared to
healthy controls. This study provides the most direct assessment of the posited Th1-Th2 shift, since cell
counts were specifically measured, rather than inferred from cytokine levels. Cytokine levels in serum or
supernatant may not accurately reflect levels of different CD4 cytokine-producing cells, since cultured
macrophages and NK cells can also produce IFN-γ, IL-4, and IL-10.1065 Investigators concluded that,
nine years after the Gulf War, symptomatic veterans showed evidence of an ongoing, low-grade Th-1type immune activation.
The King’s College team has also suggested that assessing global T cell cytokine production may not
reflect Gulf War-related changes, given the complex mix of vaccines, infections, and other antigens that
veterans have likely encountered since deployment. Taking an alternate approach, they looked
Immune Parameters  259

specifically at T cell responses to vaccines, including two that provided novel exposures at the time of the
war: anthrax and plague vaccine antigens. Results indicated that 12-15 years after the Gulf War,
vaccinated veterans continued to have T cell memory responses to anthrax and plague antigens. Cytokine
responses to anthrax and tetanus-diptheria vaccines were balanced, with neither TH1 nor TH2 response
dominating, while plague and pertussis vaccine responses were Th-1 dominant. Importantly, there were
no vaccine response differences between symptomatic and well veterans.39
Although these studies provide support for an association between Gulf War illness and immune
alterations, a shift towards a Th-2 immune profile has not been supported. The posited link between Gulf
War illness and receipt of multiple vaccines has not been ruled out, however, in light of modest
associations identified in several epidemiologic studies.241,789,1698 Animal experiments have identified
CNS-related changes, but not peripheral immune effects, following receipt of multiple vaccines, or
vaccines combined with other Gulf War exposures.535,632,1486,1752,1789
It is of interest that, using entirely different methods and study populations, researchers from the New
Jersey VA and King’s College both identified evidence of elevated production of IL-2 and IFN-γ (Th-1related cytokines) and increased levels of the regulatory cytokine, IL-10, in symptomatic Gulf War
veterans.1420,1835 These studies provide independent support for an ongoing, low level cellular immune
activation in veterans with Gulf War illness.
General evaluation of immune competence in symptomatic veterans. As summarized in
Table 8, individual studies have assessed a variety of immune parameters in relation to Gulf War illness.
The focus of the Birmingham VA immune study was to assess the functional integrity of the acquired
immune response in symptomatic veterans, using multiple in vitro measures.422 Immune challenges to
blood cells of symptomatic and healthy veterans revealed no differences in reactions of antigen presenting
cells, primary and secondary responses to a variety of antigens, or T cell-dependent B cell response to
pokeweed mitogen. Investigators concluded that their results provided no indication that symptomatic
veterans were immunodeficient, that is, that veterans with Gulf War illness had impaired ability to
respond to infection. This is compatible with results from population studies, which have provided little
indication that veterans with Gulf War illness have excess rates of commonly diagnosed infectious
diseases.393,464,1698
In contrast, a number of immune alterations were identified by a study that compared clinical blood
testing results in symptomatic Gulf War veterans, nondeployed veterans, and community controls. Dr.
Aristo Vojdani and colleagues at Immunosciences Lab1734 reported that Gulf War illness was significantly
associated with values either above or below the normal reference range for percentages of CD3 T cells
(30% of ill veterans above normal, 9% below) and CD19 B cells (49% above normal, 4% below), as well
as the CD4:CD8 ratio (33% above normal, 4% below). Significantly more ill veterans also had belownormal responses to mitogens, and exhibited depressed NK cell activity. For several tests, these
differences were not apparent when average values of the patient and control groups were compared.
Differences related, instead, to the distribution of results, with an excess number of symptomatic veterans
having abnormally high or abnormally low test results. Investigators concluded that significant subsets of
veterans with Gulf War illness exhibit immune alterations.
Although different studies have assessed different immune cell parameters in differently-defined groups
of ill veterans, several commonalities can be identified. Symptomatic veterans were reported to have
elevated percentages of CD3 cells in both the New Jersey VA study and the Immunosciences study.
Mitogen responses appeared similar in cases and controls in both the Birmingham and Immunosciences
studies, when group means were compared. However, the Immunosciences study identified a significant
subgroup of veterans with below-normal mitogen responsivity, a difference that was obscured when only
group means were considered.

260  Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness

NK cell function. As shown in Table 8, three studies have evaluated NK cell number or function in
relation to Gulf War illness. The New Jersey VA study reported a significantly lower mean percent of
NK cells in symptomatic veterans than controls,1835 while the Immunosciences study reported
significantly reduced NK cell activity in symptomatic veterans.1734 The Birmingham study, in
preliminary results, reported that NK cell activity was lower in symptomatic than healthy veterans, but
this difference was not statistically significant.423 Dr. Nancy Klimas at the Miami VA also reported to the
Committee that preliminary results from her ongoing immune study indicated that veterans with Gulf War
illness have significantly reduced NK cell numbers and activity levels.813
Abnormal antibody production and autoimmunity in relation to Gulf War illness. Some
observers have suggested that the symptoms of Gulf War illness may result from persistent production of
antibodies or autoantibodies generated in response to wartime exposures.69,1077 There is limited research
information on the question of autoimmunity in Gulf War veterans, however. Hospitalization studies
have not identified excess rates of diagnosed autoimmune diseases in Gulf War veterans.1432 Reliable
prevalence information cannot be provided by hospitalization studies, however, but require more
comprehensive population-based research. Results provided by clinical assessments of symptomatic Gulf
War veterans have provided little support for an association between Gulf War illness and nonspecific
indicators of autoimmunity, such as erythrocyte sedimentation rates (ESR) and antinuclear autoantibodies
(ANA).160,464,563
As previously described, Dr. Pamela Asa and colleagues at Tulane University reported that 36 of 38
symptomatic Gulf War veterans tested positive for IgG antibodies to squalene, compared to none of 12
healthy Gulf War veterans tested.69 A minority of symptomatic veterans in this study also had test
abnormalities suggestive of autoimmunity, and several met criteria for Sjogren’s syndrome and systemic
lupus erythematosus. Although the use of a squalene-containing adjuvant in anthrax vaccine has not been
supported by analyses of vaccine lots used during the Gulf War, a possible link between Gulf War illness
and squalene antibodies has not been directly assessed by other investigators. No conclusions concerning
the prevalence of autoimmunity or other immune abnormalities in Gulf War veterans can be drawn from
the Asa/Tulane study, in light of the relatively small, nonrepresentative sample evaluated.
Three additional studies have evaluated indicators of autoimmunity in relation to Gulf War illness.
Symptomatic Gulf War veterans were reported to have ANA and ESR values similar to those of healthy
controls in the King’s College study of U.K. veterans,1421 in Navy Seabees,563 and in the Immunosciences
evaluation of clinical samples.1734 The Immunosciences study, however, reported that symptomatic
veterans were significantly more likely to have antibodies to striated and smooth muscle, and to myelin
basic protein (MBP).1734 Elevated levels of MBP antibodies may have relevance to concerns raised by
veterans’ groups about a possible excess of multiple sclerosis among Gulf War veterans,1694,1721 but no
studies have investigated this issue. Additional studies are required to determine whether these
abnormalities are detectable in other groups of symptomatic Gulf War veterans.
Assessment of allergy in Gulf War veterans. Although sinus congestion and dermatitis are
commonly reported in surveys of Gulf War veterans,464,751,789,1476,1698 little information is available
concerning the prevalence of diagnosed allergies in this group. Ten percent of Kansas Gulf veterans
reported being diagnosed by a physician with allergies, similar to the rate reported by nondeployed era
veterans.1476 Diagnosed hay fever has also been reported at similar rates by Gulf War and nondeployed
veterans.464,789,1698
In the first reported study of immune function among ill Gulf War veterans, investigators from an allergy
and immunology clinic tested a sequential series of 20 symptomatic veterans evaluated in a Gulf War
referral center at the West Los Angeles VA.810 As a group, these symptomatic Gulf War veterans had
higher-than-average levels of IgE, and nearly two-thirds had positive allergy tests. No evidence of
immune deficiencies were identified in any of the symptomatic veterans. Although a high proportion of

Immune Parameters  261

symptomatic Gulf War veterans were classified as atopic in this clinical series, it is not possible to draw
conclusions about the prevalence of allergies in symptomatic veterans overall, and no additional studies
of this issue have been reported.
Summary. Immune parameters in Gulf War veterans. Although questions have been raised for
many years about immune function in ill Gulf War veterans, limited research has been conducted in this
area. No population studies have provided comprehensive information on rates of infectious or
autoimmune diseases in Gulf War veterans. The largest clinical study of U.S. Gulf War veterans
provided no information on immune characteristics of veterans with Gulf War illness. Other clinical
studies have provided only limited information regarding indicators of autoimmunity and allergy in
relation to Gulf War illness.
A well-known hypothesis, suggesting that veterans’ multisymptom illness is related to a systemic shift
favoring Th-2-type immunity, has not been supported by studies comparing Th-1 and Th-2 measures in
symptomatic and healthy veterans. Clinical findings from several studies have provided no indication
that veterans with Gulf War illness are immune deficient, that is, that they have an impaired ability to
respond to infection. However, a number of immune parameters have been associated with Gulf War
illness. These generally occur as research findings that differ between groups of sick and healthy
veterans, as opposed to clinical test results that are diagnostic of familiar disease conditions in individual
veterans. Although parameters evaluated by different studies have been highly variable, some areas of
consistency have emerged.
Results from two studies, using different methods in different groups of symptomatic veterans, indicate
that Gulf War illness is associated with a low-level, persistent immune activation, reflected in elevated
levels of the cytokines IL-2, IFN-γ and IL-10. In addition, several studies have reported that NK cell
numbers and/or cytotoxic activity are significantly reduced in veterans with Gulf War illness. A fuller
understanding of immune function in ill Gulf War veterans is needed, particularly in veteran subgroups
with different clinical characteristics and exposure histories. It is also important to determine the extent
to which identified immune perturbations may be associated with altered neurological and endocrine
processes that are associated with immune regulation.

Additional Clinical and Research Findings Associated with Gulf War Illness
As described throughout this section, a variety of studies have identified biological measures that
distinguish veterans with Gulf War illness from healthy controls. The areas of research already described
have included multiple studies focused on different biological characteristics of symptomatic veterans.
Most positive findings were obtained using research protocols that compared groups of symptomatic Gulf
War veterans to healthy controls. Few of the identified Gulf War illness-related differences or
abnormalities—whether related to the central nervous system, autonomic function, neurotoxicantneutralizing enzymes, endocrine parameters, or immune perturbations—were identified with diagnostic
tests routinely used in clinical practice.
There is comparatively little information on other types of biological processes or objective measures in
relation to Gulf War illness. The limited information available comes primarily from two sources: (1)
reports describing clinical findings from specialty evaluations such as rheumatologic or gastrointestinal
workups, and (2) results from single studies that have evaluated particular issues, such as pain sensitivity
or the burning seminal fluid problem reported by veterans and their spouses.

262  Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness

Table 9. Clinical Findings in Symptomatic Gulf War Veterans:
Rheumatologic and Pain Evaluations

Report/Study

Key Findings

Rheumatologic evaluation of a subgroup of No autoimmune or connective tissue disorders identified.
20 GWV with muscle weakness or pain46
Evaluation of 139 GWV referred for
rheumatology consult by CCEP517

Most diagnosed conditions similar to those of other veteran populations (e.g. 25%
patellofemoral syndrome, 18% mechanical low back pain). Higher than usual rate of
FM (17%). 21 veterans positive for RF, 2 diagnosed with RA; 14 had abnormal ANA,
1 diagnosed with SLE.

Musculoskeletal symptoms evaluated in
145 symptomatic GWV referred to a
rheumatology clinic412

Most patients had widespread pain. FM diagnosed in 34%, variety of other
diagnoses in fewer GWV. Overall, 4 were positive for RF, 3 had elevated ANA.
Veterans’ functional status substantially impaired, with all mean SF36 scores below
national 25th percentiles.

Evaluation of 60 male GWV referred to VA
rheumatology clinic for myalgia1362

15% had elevated muscle enzymes (CPK or aldolase) with weakness, arthralgia, and
rashes. Limited other test abnormalities.

Evaluation of 241 GWV with GWUI,
including 92 with unexplained
musculoskeletal symptoms160

21% of GWV with GWUI diagnosed with FM (16% male, 43% female). Higher rate of
patellofemoral syndrome in GWV than controls, but similar rates of other diagnoses.
No autoimmune or inflammatory conditions identified.

Pain tolerance assessment in 11 GWV, 25
FM patients, 24 controls1481

Pain ratings indicated sign. greater pain sensitivity in GWV than controls, and sign.
greater pain sensitivity in female GWV than male FM patients.

Tender point evaluation of 327 GWV with
CMI and 708 GWV without CMI142

GWV with CMI had sign. higher rate of FM (5.2%) than GWV without CMI (0.7%).

Synovial biopsy in 10 GWV with GWI and
arthralgia342,1199

Despite significant joint pain, GWV biopsies were normal on histology findings,
vascular density, and inflammatory cell populations.

Abbreviations: GWV = Gulf War veteran, CCEP = DOD Comprehensive Clinical Evaluation Program, FM = fibromyalgia, SF36 = Medical Short
Form Survey, GWUI = Gulf War unexplained illness, RF = rheumatoid factor, RA = rheumatoid arthritis, ANA = antinuclear antibodies, SLE =
systemic lupus erythematosus, CPK = creatine phosphokinase, sign. = statistically significant

Clinical findings related to pain and musculoskeletal symptoms. Widespread muscle and joint
pain are among the most prevalent complaints of symptomatic Gulf War veterans.1489 Objective findings
from studies and clinical evaluations of Gulf War veterans with prominent pain symptoms are
summarized in Table 9. As shown, the profile of clinical rheumatologic findings in Gulf War veterans
has been unremarkable in most respects. The one exception is the observation of a higher-than-expected
number of fibromyalgia cases in this primarily young, male population.46,142,160,517 This parallels results
from one study indicating that veterans with Gulf War illness have significantly greater sensitivity to
peripheral pain stimuli than controls, on objective measures of hyperalgesia.1481
Assessment of gastrointestinal symptoms and conditions. Gastrointestinal (GI) difficulties
are frequently reported by ill Gulf War veterans, with individual cases ranging from serious, ongoing
problems with diarrhea to less severe, but persistent, abdominal pain or indigestion. Despite the
prominence of these symptoms, few studies have investigated the biological underpinnings of veterans’
gastrointestinal difficulties. As previously described, one early report identified an excess of gallbladder
disease requiring surgery in Gulf War veterans compared to other veterans in the VA healthcare
system.1049 Clinical case series of symptomatic Gulf War veterans, summarized in Table 10, generally
identified GI diagnoses and laboratory findings similar to those of other patients referred to
gastroenterologists. Several reports indicated that veterans’ GI symptoms resembled irritable bowel

Additional Clinical and Research Findings  263

Table 10. Clinical Findings in Symptomatic Gulf War Veterans:
Gastrointestinal Evaluations

Report/Study

Key Findings

Upper and lower endoscopy and biopsies in Most GWV had GI symptoms during deployment that continued to the time of the study.
15 GWV from a group of 57 symptomatic No specific or consistent GI pathology identified. Six of 15 biopsies showed evidence
GWV and 44 nondeployed veterans from a of mild chronic inflammation.
single Guard unit.1451
Visceral and cutaneous sensitivity in 12
GWV with chronic abdominal pain and
diarrhea that began during the Gulf War,
12 civilian and veteran controls370

All GWV met criteria for irritable bowel syndrome. Visceral pain sensitivity (rectal
distension) and cutaneous pain sensitivity (foot immersed in hot water) sign. greater in
GWV than controls

Different GI endoscopic, laboratory, and
8/17 GWV had hiatal hernia, 10/17 had antral erythema, 2/17 had ulcers, 5/18 had
histological evaluations in 24 male GWV on diverticulosis, 9/17 had gastritis (6 with H. pylori), stool cultures normal, diverse other
VA Registry referred to GI clinic for chronic findings in individual GWV
GI symptoms824
327 GWV with CMI, 708 GWV without
CMI142

16% of GWV with CMI diagnosed with dyspepsia, sign. more than GWV without
CMI (6%)

Abbreviations: GWV = Gulf War veterans, GI = gastrointestinal, CMI = chronic multisymptom illness,464 sign. = statistically significant

syndrome (IBS), a “multisymptom illness” found in the general population characterized by prominent GI
symptoms, often with no objective diagnostic abnormalities. The prevalence of IBS in Gulf War veterans
has not been assessed, but preliminary information from an ongoing VA study of IBS in Gulf War
veterans was presented to the Committee by Dr. Ashok Tuteja.1565 The project includes assessment and
treatment of Gulf War veterans with IBS, and the Committee looks forward to reviewing study results
when they become available.
Respiratory function in Gulf War veterans. Respiratory symptoms like wheezing, shortness of
breath, and persistent cough are also commonly reported by ill Gulf War veterans. As previously
described, studies have suggested that rates of asthma and chronic bronchitis may be elevated in U.S.
Gulf War veterans exposed to pollutants from the Kuwaiti oil fires.285,866 Several articles have reported
results of pulmonary function testing in symptomatic Gulf War veterans. Two indicated that a subset of
veterans referred for evaluation by respiratory specialists do exhibit evidence of reduced pulmonary
function.313,1012 The large VA clinical study later reported that Gulf War veterans with chronic
multisymptom illness (CMI) have the same rate of identifiable obstructive lung disease as veterans
without CMI.142
Several large population studies have compared respiratory function in Gulf War veterans overall—those
with and without multisymptom illness—to nondeployed veterans. A large study of Navy Seabees
conducted in 1994 and 1995 indicated that, overall, Gulf War and nondeployed era veterans had similar
values on pulmonary function tests.524 In the large VA clinical study, U.S. Gulf War and nondeployed era
veterans had similar rates of respiratory symptoms, pulmonary function abnormalities, and diagnosed
obstructive lung disease.393,755 However, active duty military personnel potentially exposed to nerve
agents after the 1991 Khamisiyah demolitions, based on DOD models, were reported to have a small, but
significant, increased rate of hospitalization for respiratory diseases.529 For Australian Gulf War veterans,
exposure to oily smoke was associated with reduced pulmonary forced vital capacity (FVC) and with an
increased risk of emphysema.790 Findings such as these underscore the importance of evaluating
respiratory and other health outcomes in Gulf War veterans in subgroups with specific exposure histories.

264  Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness

Table 11. Clinical Findings in Symptomatic Gulf War Veterans:
Evaluation of Respiratory/Lung Function

Report/Study

Key Findings

Evaluation of 29 GWV referred to
pulmonary clinic for assessment of
dyspnea on exertion1012

15 of 29 GWV had abnormal resting pulmonary function measures. No common
pattern of pulmonary abnormality identified on resting or exercise tests.

Pulmonary function tests in 37 GWV
volunteers (32 with respiratory
symptoms), 38 veteran and nonveteran
controls313

Midvital capacity ratio was sign. higher in GWV than controls, and greater than 1.0 in
86% of GWV, indicating variable extrathoracic airflow obstruction. All GWVs evaluated
by bronchoscopy and biopsy showed evidence of larynx and trachea inflammation;
findings not attributable to smoking.

Pulmonary function at baseline and
during low-level acetone inhalation in 8
symptomatic GWV and 8 well GWV193

Pulmonary function similar in symptomatic and healthy GWV at baseline and during
acetone exposure.

Pulmonary function tests in 327 GWV
with CMI and 708 GWV veteran
controls142

GWV with CMI had similar rate of diagnosed obstructive lung disease as GWV without
CMI.

Abbreviations: GWV = Gulf War veterans, CMI = chronic multisymptom illness,464 sign. = statistically significant

Women’s health issues in Gulf War veterans. As described in the first section of the report,
multiple studies have assessed pregnancy outcomes and fertility issues in Gulf War veterans. But little
information is available on other types of health problems of concern for women veterans, and no studies
have assessed female-specific complaints in women with Gulf War illness. A study of over 200 British
women Gulf War veterans found that overall, in contrast to other populations, women and men Gulf War
veterans report generally similar rates of symptoms.1699 Compared to nondeployed female veterans,
however, women who served in the Gulf War reported substantially higher rates of frequent yeast
infections (OR=5.0) and bladder infections (OR = 9.8). A longitudinal study of Air Force women
veterans of the Gulf War conducted by the University of Michigan found that, in addition to the Gulf War
illness-type symptoms reported by other studies, women Gulf War veterans were significantly more likely
to report lumps or cysts in their breasts and abnormal Pap smears than era veterans.1207,1208 This contrasts
with a report from DOD’s Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, which identified similar types and rates
of cervical findings in Gulf War and nondeployed era veterans from Pap smears conducted on 6,715
active duty Air Force women in 1994.463 It is important to emphasize, again, that these studies only
looked at Gulf War veteran women overall, and did not provide information specific to women with Gulf
War illness.
Skin abnormalities in Gulf War veterans. Skin problems that include anomalous rashes and
growths, and other abnormalities, are commonly reported by symptomatic Gulf War veterans but have
only minimally been evaluated in research studies. Skin conditions are among the most prevalent
physician diagnoses reported in surveys of Gulf War veterans,751,789,1476,1698 and an early case series report
indicated that rashes were clinically verified in 39 percent of 166 symptomatic Gulf war veterans.1050 In
the large King’s College study, 48 percent of disabled U.K. Gulf War veterans had diagnosed skin
conditions.607 A group of miscellaneous benign skin problems—including lipomas, seborrheic warts, and
vitiligo—were significantly more common in disabled Gulf War veterans than well veterans. Seborrheic
dermatitis occurred in more Gulf War veterans (8%), overall, than non-Gulf veterans (2%). In the large
U.S. clinical study, skin conditions were not evaluated in relation to multisymptom illness. Overall, 35
percent of deployed Gulf War veterans, were diagnosed with “Type 2” skin conditions, that is, various
dermatologic findings more serious than freckles, moles, and scars.393

Additional Clinical and Research Findings  265

Genetic findings in symptomatic Gulf War veterans. In addition to research on genetic
variability related to toxin-neutralizing enzymes, two studies have evaluated other genetic parameters in
symptomatic Gulf War veterans. Investigators at the East Orange, New Jersey VA assessed allele
frequencies and genotypes associated with muscle metabolism and physical endurance in 49 Gulf War
veterans and 61 nonveterans with chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS).1725 In Gulf War veterans, CFS was
highly associated with insertion/deletion (I/D) polymorphisms in the gene that encodes for angiotensinconverting enzyme (ACE), an enzyme associated with muscle metabolism, electrolyte balance, and blood
pressure. Frequency of the I allele was significantly reduced in ill veterans. Compared to II
homozygotes, the DD genotype was associated with an eight-fold greater risk for CFS in Gulf War
veterans, but was not related to CFS in nonveteran patients.
Researchers from Pennsylvania State University evaluated the frequencies of HLA A, B, DR, and DQ
antigens in 32 symptomatic Gulf War veterans compared to a local reference population.1139 One HLA
class I antigen, A28, was significantly elevated in Gulf War veterans (22%) compared to the general
population (7%). This antigen has been associated with a variety of clinical conditions, and possible
implications for Gulf War illness are unclear. Investigators suggested the association may have been a
chance finding and concluded that HLA variability is not strongly associated with Gulf War illness.
Additional findings in symptomatic Gulf War veterans. A number of additional studies have
provided single looks at specific medical problems or laboratory parameters in Gulf War veterans.
Findings from these studies are briefly summarized below.
Burning seminal fluid in Gulf War veterans. After the Gulf War, some returning male veterans and
their female sexual partners reported a painful burning reaction to veterans’ seminal fluid. The problem
was particularly unique to Gulf War service, with mild-to-severe “burning semen” reported by seven
percent of Gulf War veterans nationally, but mild problems only by one percent of nondeployed
veterans.751 Researchers from the University of Cincinnati collected questionnaire data from 211 Gulf
War veterans with this problem and conducted detailed clinical evaluations of 20 Gulf War couples (male
veterans and their female partners).131 For about half the veterans, the problem had initially occurred with
their first sexual contact after the war. Most had not sought medical attention for the problem and fewer
than half the couples obtained relief using a condom. About 40 percent of women met criteria for seminal
hypersensitivity syndrome, which is also found in the general population, but important differences were
identified in Gulf War couples. In the general population, male partners typically do not react to their
own seminal fluid and nearly all cases are relieved using condoms. For Gulf War couples in which
women did not have IgE-mediated reactivity to veterans’ semen, no explanation for the burning semen
problem was identified.
Coagulation abnormalities in symptomatic Gulf War veterans. Based on earlier indications of
coagulation abnormalities in chronic fatigue syndrome patients, a team of clinical investigators compared
results from a battery of five coagulation assays done on 33 symptomatic veterans (27 Gulf War veterans,
six era veterans) and 33 healthy nonveteran controls.577 Two-thirds of symptomatic veterans tested
positive on two or more of the assays, compared to none of the controls, a highly significant difference.
Investigators concluded that veterans’ symptoms were associated with reduced blood flow resulting from
a hypercoagulable state, likely induced by exposures in theater, particularly in veterans with inherited
thrombotic risk factors. The proposed association between hypercoagulation and Gulf War illness is
being further investigated by a research team at the Minneapolis VA. Dr. Ronald Bach presented
preliminary findings from the pilot project to the Committee, which identified significantly greater
platelet tissue factor procoagulant activity in veterans with Gulf War illness than in veteran controls.81
The Committee looks forward to reviewing final results from this project, which will evaluate additional
markers of coagulation in larger samples.

266  Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness

Identification of RNA sequences associated with Gulf War illness. Chromosomal abnormalities
have been reported in Gulf War veterans evaluated in relation to depleted uranium exposure, as
previously described. An additional study evaluated genetic alterations in 24 symptomatic veterans by
testing their sera for the presence of polyribonucleotides with enterovirus-related primers.1700 Using
reverse transcriptase PCR, researchers identified multiple nucleotide bands common to Gulf War
veterans, mostly in the 300-750 base pair range with some longer than 2,000 base pairs. Few bands were
identified in healthy nonveteran controls, and all were under 450 base pairs. DNA sequencing of two of
the amplicons unique to Gulf War veterans identified polynucleotides that had not previously been
characterized, but contained sequences with 100 percent homology to sequences in human chromosome
22q11. Alterations at 22q11 have been associated with other medical conditions, and investigators
suggested it contains “hot spots” for genetic deletions and rearrangements. They concluded that their
findings indicate that Gulf War illness may be associated with genetic alterations, induced by exposure to
multiple hazardous substances during the war.
Proteomic findings in Gulf War veterans and other multisymptom illness patients. Investigators
from Georgetown University evaluated proteins expressed in the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) of study
subjects with Gulf War illness, fibromyalgia (FM), and chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) that
differentiated them from healthy controls. Results from two study cohorts identified 10 proteins that were
differentially expressed in the multisymptom illness patients, whose CSFs were pooled for these
analyses.96 The identified proteome included central nervous system, innate immune, and amyloidogenic
proteins not expressed in the CSF of healthy controls. Investigators had earlier indicated, in a conference
presentation, that a substantial number of proteins differentiated veterans with Gulf War illness from
FM/CFS patients,215 but these differences were not identified or further explored in the research
publication.
Report of reduced bone formation in Gulf War veterans. A study of British veterans compared
results of ileac crest bone biopsies from 17 symptomatic Gulf War veterans and healthy nonveteran
controls.265 Histology and cell function measures indicated that symptomatic veterans had significantly
reduced bone formation at both the tissue and cellular levels, resulting in reduced areas of cancellous
bone. Investigators were not able to ascertain the cause of this reduction, but noted that the findings were
not associated with reduced physical activity in this group and that similar findings had been reported in
symptomatic farmers chronically exposed to organophosphate sheep dip.264 These results have since been
questioned by Ministry of Defence researchers, owing to several limitations in this small, preliminary
study.143

Future Directions in Identifying Physiological Mechanisms that Underlie Gulf War Illness
Information described throughout this report reflects the primary focus of the Committee’s work thus far,
reviewing all research studies, investigations, and reports that provide information pertaining to the health
of Gulf War veterans. To address the goal of improving the health of Gulf War veterans, the highest
priority research that remains will advance efforts to identify effective treatments and diagnostic tests for
Gulf War illness. To accomplish these objectives, it is essential that that the specific biological
mechanisms that underlie veterans’ symptoms be more specifically characterized.
The current phase of the Committee’s work, therefore, involves an expanded focus on reviewing research
related to pathophysiological processes that may underlie the symptoms of Gulf War illness. Research
will be considered that may not currently be directed to Gulf War health issues, but can potentially
contribute to improved understanding of the biology of Gulf War illness or identifiable subgroups. In
undertaking this work, the committee has conducted preliminary discussions in several areas, and has
considered one topic in more depth.

Additional Clinical and Research Findings  267

In attempting to understand the biological mechanisms that contribute to Gulf War illness, it is useful to
consider physiological abnormalities that might explain some of the prominent “unknowns” related to this
condition. These include questions about what types of biological processes could manifest as multiple
diverse symptoms affecting different systems, what types of processes would elude detection by standard
medical evaluation and clinical testing, and what mechanisms might contribute to the long-term nature of
veterans’ symptoms. And, as the etiology of Gulf War illness has become better understood, it also
includes questions about what biological processes with these characteristics could be induced by toxic
exposures. The Committee has discussed diverse questions of this nature, and considered a variety of
possible answers.
The biological mechanism considered in most depth involves the potential for proinflammatory processes
in the central nervous system to precipitate and sustain the diverse symptoms associated with Gulf War
illness. In addition, preliminary discussions have focused on the possible role of neuroplasticity in
veterans’ chronic symptoms, neurological and neuroendocrine alterations associated with multisymptom
conditions in the general population, and the potential for mitochondrial deficiencies to contribute to Gulf
War illness. Information related to these topics is briefly summarized below. The Committee will
continue to consider research in these and other areas, and will provide additional information on research
that can potentially improve understanding, diagnosis, and treatment of Gulf War illness in future reports.
Neuroplasticity in relation to Gulf War illness. A fundamental question related to the biological
processes that underlie veterans’ chronic symptomatic illness relates to whether they are the direct result
of acute damage caused by a toxic insult in 1991, or the result of persistent alterations in brain processes
that are “downstream” from an initial insult. It was long believed that the adult brain is relatively static,
and that central nervous system tissues have little capacity for adaptive change in response to damage. In
recent years, processes involved in brain regeneration have begun to be better understood. The adult
human brain has substantial capacity for structural plasticity, that is, adaptation of brain cells and
reorganization of neural pathways in response to damage.248 These processes have an important role in
recovery from brain injury, but can also lead to problems that result from cellular changes and circuitry
alterations that are maladaptive. It has been suggested, for example, that some neurodegenerative diseases
may be the long-term effect of aberrant brain cell responses to injury.59
Dr. Floyd Bloom, a member of the Committee and a prominent neuroscientist, provided a preliminary
overview of processes involved in neuroplasticity for Committee discussion, and described how structural
reorganization of brain cells can be visually mapped.151,1820 Long-term damage from an acute central
nervous system insult could potentially result from induction of neuroplastic processes, leading to
sustained alterations in brain cells and pathways that are inefficient or pathological. For example,
repeated inhibition of acetylcholine receptors in the locus ceruleus might result in alterations, locally and
in other brain structure, that affect responses to subsequent exposures or other novel events. Knowing the
primary areas of cholinergic neurons in the brain, it might be possible to determine which specific areas
are dysregulated through animal research or human post mortem studies. Understanding the contribution
of these processes to persistent symptoms in Gulf War veterans would potentially have diagnostic and
treatment implications.
A variety of related concepts were considered in a 2000 conference on the role of neuroplasticity in
chemical sensitivity.1450 The conference, sponsored jointly by federal agencies and private organizations,
included information on Gulf War illness and other multisymptom conditions. Scientists from diverse
fields were convened to review relevant research and develop testable hypotheses, based on the premise
that chemical injury involves a change in central nervous system function that results in persistent
symptoms. Discussions included a chemical “kindling” model whereby chemical exposures precipitate
permanent hypersensitive responses to electrical stimulation in brain cells,490 and research indicating that
persistent pain states can result from central sensitization that involves neuroplastic processes in the spinal
cord that lead to hyperalgesia.1021,1790

268  Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness

Central nervous system abnormalities associated with disordered sensory processing
and autonomic/neuroendocrine dysregulation. As will be described in the next section of the
report, Gulf War illness has similarities to multisymptom conditions found in the general population,
conditions like fibromyalgia (FM) and chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). In addition to similarities in the
symptom profiles of these conditions, a number of biological systems affected by FM and CFS also
appear to be involved in Gulf War illness. This suggests some overlap in the pathophysiological
processes that underlie these conditions.
Dr. Daniel Clauw is a member of the Committee and a leading expert on FM and related pain and
multisymptom disorders. His research, and that of other FM researchers, indicates that FM is primarily a
central nervous system (CNS) disorder that involves abnormal CNS processing of pain stimuli.253,254 This
has been demonstrated in different ways, including FM-associated elevations in cerebrospinal fluid levels
of pronociceptive factors, and enhanced response to nonpainful stimuli in brain regions associated with
pain processing, demonstrated on functional MRI.515 Studies have also demonstrated autonomic
dysregulation and neuroendocrine alterations in FM patients, including abnormalities in HPA axis
parameters, and reduced circulating levels of norepinephrine and serotonin.975,1330 Many of the biological
abnormalities associated with FM have not been evaluated in Gulf War veterans, however. Research in
these areas can potentially provide important insights into biological mechanisms that underlie veterans’
symptoms. This is especially important in relation to biological processes amenable to treatment. Two
medical FM treatments that address neuroendocrine irregularities have recently been approved by the
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).398,1666 Additional information comparing FM, CFS, and Gulf
War illness is provided in the following section of the report, with related recommendations.
Mitochondrial paradigm in relation to Gulf War illness. Mitochondria are the “power plants” of
the cell that produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s primary energy source. Mitochondrial
function is essential for cell viability, and cells that utilize large amounts of energy, like brain and muscle
cells, are particularly sensitive to effects of mitochondrial damage. Dr. Beatrice Golomb, a Committee
member, and Dr. Douglas Wallace, a prominent expert in mitochondrial disease, presented information
suggesting a link between Gulf War illness and multisystem effects arising from mitochondrial
injury.505,1744
Drs. Golomb and Wallace described a general model in which toxic environmental exposures can cause
damage by inducing increased cellular levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The ROS damage
mitochondrial DNA, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction, cell damage and cell death. This generates
additional release of ROS, triggering a self perpetuating cycle. Clinical effects become apparent over
time, as cell and tissue damage accrue. Prominent symptoms associated with mitochondrial disease can
include fatigue, headache, muscle weakness, and cognitive problems, symptoms that parallel those
affecting Gulf War veterans. In addition, recent research has indicated that acetylcholinesterase
inhibitors, and other toxic chemicals, can exert adverse effects on brain and muscle tissues through
pathways that involve oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage.775,1030,1400
Studies have linked mitochondrial DNA damage with age-related diseases that include cancer, diabetes,
and neurodegenerative diseases.1742,1743 But there is little information from studies of veterans with Gulf
War illness to indicate whether mitochondrial abnormalities may play a role in veterans’ symptoms. As
previously described, muscle tests and biopsies have generally found little indication of muscle pathology
in veterans with Gulf War illness, although one study identified an exercise-induced excess of circulating
lactate suggestive of low-level mitochondrial insufficiency.1311 Muscle symptoms in other multisymptom
conditions are generally considered central in origin, although limited muscle abnormalities have been
identified.1470,1832 Identification of frank mitochondrial damage in symptomatic veterans could have
important implications for diagnostic testing and treatment.

Future Directions in Identifying Physiological Mechanisms  269

Multisymptom illness associated with central nervous system inflammatory processes.
The Committee reviewed extensive materials and heard multiple interrelated presentations concerning the
potential for chronic central nervous system inflammatory processes to contribute to Gulf War illness.
Attention to this area stemmed from the Committee’s interest in identifying pathophysiological processes
that could explain the complex of concurrent symptoms affecting Gulf War veterans but would go
undetected with routine clinical testing.
The Gulf War illness symptom complex prominently includes chronic widespread pain, cognitive
difficulties, and unexplained fatigue, along with diverse other symptoms. Similar, usually time-limited
symptom complexes, occur in relation to a number of other health conditions that include infection, sleep
deprivation, and the therapeutic use of cytokines.310,378,549,784,876 All these time-limited “multisymptom
illness” conditions have one thing in common: they occur in conjunction with increased levels of
proinflammatory cytokines. Cytokines are chemical messengers generated as part of the body’s
nonspecific, innate immune response to diverse threats that include infection, tissue injury, and toxic
exposures. Proinflammatory cytokines have a variety of effects. In infectious disease, they precipitate a
specific immune response that neutralizes the infection, but they also precipitate the pain/fatigue/impaired
cognition complex of somatic symptoms. These symptoms are commonly believed to be adaptive,
promoting recovery from sickness by imposing reduced physical and mental activity.784
This symptom complex parallels a group of “symptoms” studied in animal models that are referred to as
“sickness behaviors”—reduced activity, impaired memory and learning, and heightened pain sensitivity—
which are precipitated by infection and proinflammatory cytokines.309,330,784 The association between
proinflammatory cytokines and “sickness response” symptoms in animals and humans has been known
for some time,311 but in recent years has been the subject of a fast-growing body of research in diverse
fields. 37,82,309,694,715,1041,1524,1736,1784 Studies have demonstrated that these symptoms are the result of
cytokines acting in the brain, not the periphery, and can be precipitated by increases in brain cytokine
levels that are either stimulated from the periphery, or generated by resident brain cells.95,784,794
Immune processes in the brain differ in important ways from those in the periphery and involve different
cell populations.84 Microglial cells are widely distributed in the brain and have a primary role in immune
surveillance and the central immune response, including production of proinflammatory cytokines in
response to injury—chemical, physical, or biological.1153,1502
The Committee reviewed diverse types of information related to central proinflammatory processes and
discussed them with scientists whose research related these processes more specifically to Gulf War
illness. Dr. James O’Callaghan, a Committee member and the director of the Molecular Neurotoxicology
Laboratory at the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, provided an introductory overview of
toxin-induced inflammation and cytokine activation in the brain.1140 He described the multiple
overlapping feedback mechanisms whereby the brain, autonomic, immune, and endocrine systems
interact with and regulate one another. Acute microglial activation is a protective response to toxins, brain
injury, and infection. Persistent microglial activation, however, has been linked to a number of chronic
disease states, including Parkinson’s disease. Dr. O’Callaghan’s own research has demonstrated the role
of the proinflammatory cytokine TNF-α in the generation of cell damage and gliosis by the dopaminergic
neurotoxicant MPTP.1473
Beyond the parallels between Gulf War illness and symptoms that develop with increased brain levels of
proinflammatory cytokines, the potential relevance of these processes to Gulf War illness is suggested by
several indicators. First, studies indicate that exposures encountered in the Gulf War can stimulate
production of cytokines and related proinflammatory processes in the brain, and inhibit processes that
down regulate inflammation. Inflammation is controlled by both autonomic and hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal (HPA) axis function in the periphery, both of which appear to be dysregulated in Gulf War
veterans. There are also indications that Gulf War illness is associated with a low-level immune

270  Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness

activation, evident in the peripheral circulation, although this has not yet been assessed in the central
nervous system.1420,1835
Enhanced glial activation and central nervous system cytokine production have been demonstrated in
animal models following exposure to high306 and low-level 601 sarin, in response to combined exposure to
PB, DEET, permethrin and stress, at levels comparable to those of Gulf War veterans,3 and in response to
inhalation of DU896 and particulates.147,1719 In addition, animal studies have demonstrated that low level
sarin exposure results in a delayed reduction of M1 cholinergic receptors in the brain,601 delayed effects
on autonomic function,1070,1071 and persistent reduction of corticosteroid.740,868,1445
Dr. Kevin Tracey presented research from his laboratory, which has characterized the mechanism by
which the autonomic nervous system regulates cytokine production and inflammation in the periphery,
termed the “cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway.” 1552 It involves autonomic detection of
inflammation, afferent vagal signaling to the brain, and efferent signaling that inhibits cytokine
production.301 This pathway is regulated by the brain, and depends on the activation of central muscarinic
receptors, specifically M1 receptors.1178 It is not known if similar processes are involved in regulating
inflammatory processes in the brain.
Additional information was presented by Dr. Mariana Morris, who described her research demonstrating
delayed autonomic and neuroendocrine effects of low-level sarin exposure1070,1071 and Dr. Mohan Sopori,
describing M1 receptor alterations, increased central cytokine production,601 and persistent reductions in
corticosteroid levels following low-level sarin exposure.740,868,1445 Dr. Nancy Klimas summarized the
broad spectrum of findings related to increased cytokine production in patients with CFS.812,814
Dr. Jau-Shyong Hong described his research demonstrating the potential for an acute proinflammatory
stimulus to generate a persistent, self-perpetuating process of microglial activation and inflammation in
the brain following toxic insult.146,625 Dr. Hong also provided preliminary information related to several
compounds that are being studied for their potential to inhibit aberrant microglial activation and
inflammation in the brain, including drugs currently approved for use in other conditions. In addition, Dr.
Tomas Guilarte provided an overview of the use of PET scans and other methods to detect PK11195
binding on peripheral benzodiazepine receptors in the brain, a sensitive marker for glial cell activation.540
These methods are used in research studies to identify and localize evidence of central nervous system
inflammation resulting from neurotoxicant exposures in animal models. They are also used to
characterize central inflammatory processes associated with neurological diseases in humans, including
ALS, multiple sclerosis, and Parkinson’s disease.94,204,481,843,1564
The research considered suggests the potential for Gulf War exposures to precipitate an inflammatory
response in the brain, a response that may have become dysregulated due to effects of multiple repeat
exposures and/or disruption of processes that down regulate the central inflammatory response. It also
suggests the potential for persistent neuroinflammatory processes to develop, promoted by alterations in
autonomic and neuroendocrine mechanisms that normally keep inflammatory processes in check, or by
self perpetuating mechanisms.146,494 Lastly, it suggests that these processes can precipitate a
multisymptom complex similar to that affecting Gulf War veterans.
The Committee considers the potential involvement of central proinflammatory processes in precipitating
and sustaining veterans’ multisymptom illness to be a promising area for further research. The
mechanisms of central nervous system injury and chronic illness suggested by this model also appear to
be compatible with other mechanisms considered more briefly by the Committee. Central nervous system
inflammatory processes may contribute to or result from neuroplastic changes following an initial insult
to the brain or additional alterations that develop over time.204,309,510 The mechanisms described imply an
epiphenomenon involving interactive dysregulation of neuroendocrine parameters, autonomic function,
and neuroinflammatory processes that, in combination, result in persistent symptoms that include

Future Directions in Identifying Physiological Mechanisms  271

widespread pain, cognitive difficulties, fatigue, and additional problems. Central inflammatory processes
also generate, and can be triggered by, increased levels of ROS and mitochondrial alterations in brain
tissues.93 Whether or not these processes are detectable in the peripheral circulation and tissues, their
occurrence in the brain and spinal cord may plausibly explain veterans’ symptoms.
Research in this area is especially warranted because of its possible clinical implications. If veterans with
Gulf War illness are affected by dysregulated central inflammatory processes, imaging methods are
available that can potentially identify these abnormalities in ill veterans, providing possible diagnostic
applications. Most importantly, a number of therapeutic agents have been studied and are being further
developed for their effectiveness in treating dysregulated central inflammatory processes.289,1047,1417

272  Biological and Clinical Characteristics of Gulf War Illness

Recommendations
The Committee places a high priority on identification of biological markers for Gulf War illness and
measurable differences between groups of symptomatic and healthy Gulf War veterans. In light of
findings from current and ongoing studies describing significant associations between Gulf War illness
and neurological, immune, endocrine, and enzyme parameters, the Committee recommends the following
research:
 Studies that utilize state-of-the-art neuroimaging technologies to characterize aspects of brain
structure and function that may distinguish veterans with Gulf War illness, including illness or
exposure subgroups, from healthy Gulf War veterans
 Comprehensive evaluation of autonomic nervous system function in veterans with Gulf War
illness, including illness and exposure subgroups
 Research that investigates biological and genetic variability potentially linked to differences in
vulnerability to Gulf War exposures, including studies that evaluate associations between Gulf War
illness and genetic polymorphisms and activity levels of enzymes associated with uptake and
metabolism of neurotoxic exposures
 Comprehensive evaluation of immune parameters associated with Gulf War illness, including
parameters that may differ among illness and/or exposure subgroups
 Comprehensive evaluation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis parameters associated with Gulf
War illness, including parameters that may differ among illness and/or exposure subgroups
 Studies that evaluate alterations in central proinflammatory and inflammatory processes in Gulf
War veterans affected by Gulf War illness
 Animal studies that characterize persistent effects of Gulf War-related exposures, alone and in
combination, on central proinflammatory processes and their biological mediators in the central
nervous system and target organs
 Studies that utilize new technologies (proteomic, genomic, and metabolomic methods) capable of
identifying unique molecular characteristics of Gulf War illness, as well as illness and exposure
subgroups

Recommendations  273

Gulf War Illness in Relation to Multisymptom Conditions
in the General Population
Research reports often point to general similarities between Gulf War illness and multisymptom
conditions found in the general population—conditions such as chronic fatigue syndrome and
fibromyalgia—that are defined primarily on the basis of patients’ symptoms. Such conditions share many
features with Gulf War illness. They are characterized by multiple symptoms affecting multiple systems,
are not well understood biologically, and are not typically distinguished by objective diagnostic tests.
The symptoms of these conditions are also rather general, that is, they include problems such as fatigue,
pain, and cognitive/mood difficulties that are commonly seen in healthcare settings, and are associated
with a wide range of medical conditions. These general similarities were recognized by Congress when,
in 1998, it directed that special regulations permitting Gulf War veterans to receive disability
compensation for “undiagnosed illnesses” also apply to veterans diagnosed with chronic fatigue
syndrome, fibromyalgia, and similar conditions defined primarily on the basis of symptoms.259
There are also strong parallels in the historical and social contexts surrounding Gulf War illness and other
multisymptom conditions. All are chronic and debilitating to varying degrees, often persisting for many
years, and present difficult challenges for patients seeking healthcare support and for clinicians seeking to
provide useful treatments.369,919,1535,1783 All of these conditions have been considered controversial,
particularly so in the early years they were recognized, with much of the controversy focused on the
degree to which the conditions represent distinct syndromes and are essentially organic or psychiatric in
nature.
For its initial consideration of similarities between Gulf War illness and multisymptom conditions in the
general population, the Committee focused on three defined syndromes—chronic fatigue syndrome
(CFS), fibromyalgia (FM), and multiple chemical sensitivity syndrome (MCS). A number of other
conditions also reasonably fall under the “multisymptom illness” rubric, conditions such as irritable
bowel syndrome, myofascial pain syndrome, and temporomandibular joint dysfunction syndrome. Such
syndromes may have similarities to some of the symptom domains affecting veterans, but are less
obviously associated with the diversity of systems involved in Gulf War illness and have seldom been
evaluated in Gulf War veterans.
In contrast, multiple studies have reported the prevalence of CFS, FM, and MCS in Gulf War veterans.1534
Identification and diagnosis of CFS, FM, and MCS cases depends on definitions that have varied between
investigators and over time.299,465,621,1262,1398,1408,1437,1801 While each syndrome is associated with multiple
symptom types, CFS, FM, and MCS case definitions differ markedly from one another, with each
distinguished by a sentinel symptom or core characteristic. The sentinel symptom for CFS is persistent
and debilitating fatigue, for FM it is chronic widespread pain, and for MCS it is the exacerbation of
symptoms by low-level chemical exposures. However, the syndromes CFS, FM, and MCS are not
synonymous with these sentinel symptoms and are much less prevalent. The symptom of fatigue, for
example, is extremely common, affecting up to one fourth of the general population.1179,1234 Chronic
fatigue syndrome, on the other hand, is far less common. As currently defined, CFS affects less than one
half of one percent of the general population.709,1277
Research studies consistently find significant overlap between defined multisymptom conditions in the
general population. That is, patients who meet diagnostic criteria for one of these conditions frequently
also meet criteria for others.2,187,710,1425,1775 The extent to which some or all of these conditions represent
different aspects of a unified “multisymptom” disease entity or are associated with common underlying
physiological abnormalities has been the subject of considerable discussion by researchers. 255,807,1766
There is also ongoing discussion of the extent to which each syndrome, individually, should be
considered a single condition or a heterogeneous mix of illnesses that manifest in similar symptoms but

274  The Nature of Gulf War Illness

are actually the result of various etiologic pathways and underlying pathologies.72,1257,1330,1735
Investigators have observed that the most widely used case definition for CFS,465 for example, is
problematic in that it includes a heterogeneous group of symptomatic patients.707,708,793,1791 Therefore,
determining the extent to which Gulf War illness is essentially the “same type of thing” as CFS, FM,
MCS, or perhaps all of them, is complicated by the lack of agreement about whether these conditions
individually can rightly be considered single or unique disease entities.
Fatigue and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome in Gulf War Veterans
Poorly understood fatiguing conditions accompanied by multiple symptoms such as chronic pain and
cognitive impairment have been described in the medical literature for centuries.113,600,1498 The clinical
condition now identified as chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) was first described in relation to an outbreak
of unexplained fatiguing illness in Nevada in 1984.622 CFS is now most often defined using criteria
established by an expert panel convened by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in
1994.465 According to these criteria, CFS is defined as the presence of debilitating fatigue for a minimum
of six months in the absence of exclusionary medical and psychiatric conditions, and the persistence of at
least four of eight chronic symptoms that include headache, muscle aches and pains, joint pain, problems
with memory or concentration, unrefreshing sleep, and atypical fatigue following exertion.
Prevalence estimates for CFS, as currently defined, range from 2351277 to 422709 cases per 100,000, or 0.2
- 0.4 percent of the general population. A recently-proposed broader CFS case definition yields higher
prevalence rates.1261 CFS affects about three times as many women as men, with individuals age 40-60
most often affected.1277 The severity of CFS symptoms typically waxes and wanes over time.
Longitudinal studies report that between 10 and 60 percent of CFS patients may show symptom
improvement on follow-up but fewer than 10 percent achieve full recovery or sustained
remission.205,733,1126,1792
Although there has been considerable research on patients with CFS—over 3,000 studies are listed in the
National Library of Medicine database—the nature and causes of this condition have remained elusive.
Studies have pointed to possible viral etiologies7,186,493 as well as abnormalities related to immune
function,814,815,1098,1175,1419 neurological function158,270,858,862,1375 and endocrine parameters.256,334,712,1170
However, results reported in each of these areas have been mixed, with questions about discrepancies
between findings still largely unresolved.26
As shown in Table 1, the symptom of persistent fatigue is commonly reported by Gulf War veterans. A
much smaller proportion meet CFS case definition criteria or report being diagnosed with CFS. By
almost any definition, however, the rate of CFS in Gulf War veterans is substantially higher than CFS
rates in nondeployed era veterans and the general population. In the subset of studies utilizing clinical
evaluations, CFS prevalence estimates have ranged from 1.6 - 5.1 percent in Gulf War veterans,393,464,987
much higher than the 0.2 - 0.4 percent CFS prevalence in the general population. Most significantly,
recent findings from VA’s Phase III clinical study indicated that the rate of CFS in Gulf War veterans was
over 40 times the rate in their nondeployed veterans peers.393
Taken together, these results demonstrate a dramatically elevated rate of CFS in Gulf War veterans,
perhaps the highest rate of CFS yet documented in a large defined population. The VA study also
reported, however, that veterans who met diagnostic criteria for CFS represented only a small subset—
less than six percent—of Gulf War veterans affected by multisymptom illnesses.142

Gulf War Illness in Relation to Multisymptom Conditions in the General Population  275

Table 1. Prevalence of Fatigue and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome
Among Gulf War Veterans and Nondeployed Era Veterans

Fatigue
Study
789

Kelsall 2004

Chronic Fatigue Syndrome

Fatigue
Measure

Non
deployed
vets

Gulf
War
vets

OR

Chronic Fatigue
Syndrome Measure

fatigue

56 %

66 %

1.6*

41 %

†

Eisen 2005393
464

Fukuda 1998

fatigue
> 6 months

13 %

4.7*

Goss Gilroy 1998511

Non
deployed
vets

Gulf
War
vets

OR

self-reported diagnosis

1.0 %

1.0 %

0.8

clinically diagnosed

0.1 %

1.6 %

40.6*

clinically diagnosed

5.1 %

presumed CFS based on
symptoms

1.9 %

8.5 %

5.3*

Gray 1999524

fatigue
> 1 month

5%

20 %

4.4*

Gray 2002527

fatigue > 1 year

1%

39 %

3.7*

self-reported diagnosis

0.7 %

5.2 %

7.6*

Iowa 1997350,692

feeling tired

19 %

38 %

2.6*†

presumed CFS based on
symptoms

0.6 %

1.9 %

3.1*

Ishoy 1999696

abnormal
fatigue

11 %

26 %

3.0*†

Kang 2000751,753

fatigue

15 %

38 %

3.5*†

presumed CFS based on
symptoms

1.2 %

5.6 %

4.8*

29 %

†

McCauley 2002987
1238

Proctor 2001

clinically diagnosed
chronic fatigue

9%

4.4*

Reid 20011264
Simmons 20041411

presumed CFS based on
symptoms

2.2 %
0

2.0 %

ns

presumed CFS based
on fatigue score, SF36

1.8 %

2.1 %

1.2

fatigue

1%

11 %

9.1*

self-reported diagnosis

0.1 %

0.4 %

3.5*

Steele 2000

fatigue > 1 year

12 %

36 %

4.1*

presumed CFS based on
symptoms

0.7 %

7.1 %

8.2*

Unwin 19991698

fatigue

28 %

51 %

2.7*

self-reported diagnosis

0.8 %

3.3 %

4.2*

1476

Abbreviations: CFS = chronic fatigue syndrome, OR = odds ratio, SF36 = Medical Outcome Study Short Form Survey
Notes: * Odds ratio is significantly elevated in Gulf War veterans; †Value calculated from data provided in referenced article

Chronic Pain and Fibromyalgia in Gulf War Veterans
Fibromyalgia, or fibromyalgia syndrome (FM) is a condition associated with chronic widespread pain that
is typically accompanied by a variety of persistent symptoms such as fatigue, cognitive and mood
disturbances, sleep abnormalities, headache, and gastrointestinal difficulties. Chronic widespread pain is
a common problem, affecting between seven and 11 percent of the general population.296,1774,1799
Fibromyalgia, as defined by the American College of Rheumatology, is much less common. Defining

276  The Nature of Gulf War Illness

Table 2. Prevalence of Pain and Fibromyalgia
Among Gulf War Veterans and Nondeployed Era Veterans

Pain
Pain
Measure

Study

Non
deployed
vets

Fibromyalgia
Gulf
War
vets

Fibromyalgia
Measure

OR

160

Bourdette 2001

clinically diagnosed

Eisen 2005393
464

Fukuda 1998

Non
deployed
vets

muscle pain > 6
months

6%

18 %

Gulf
War
vets

OR

2.5 %

clinically diagnosed

1.2 %

2.0 %

2.3*

presumed FM based
on symptoms

9.6 %

16.2 %

1.8*

presumed FM based
on symptoms

11.1 %

20.9 %

2.1*

0

<1%

-

hospitalization for FM

0.04 %

0.04 %

1.2*

self-reported
diagnosis

< 0.5%

2.0 %

3.7

†

3.4*

Goss Gilroy 1998511
Gray 1999524

unusual muscle
pain > 1 month

2%

7%

3.8*

Gray 2002527

unusual muscle
pain > 1 year

6%

23 %

4.4*

Iowa 1997350,692

muscle aches,
soreness or
stiffness

17 %

31 %

2.2*†

Kang 2000751

muscle pain

17 %

33 %

2.4*†

Kelsall 2004789

general muscle
aches or pains

56 %

66 %

1.3*

Simmons 20041411

skeletal/muscular
symptoms

13 %

15 %

1.1*

Smith 20001432
1476

Steele 2000

muscle pain
> 1 year

6%

21 %

4.6*

Unwin 19991698

pain without
swelling

14 %

32 %

2.2*

self-reported
diagnosis

Abbreviations: FM = fibromyalgia, OR = odds ratio
Notes: *Odds ratio is significantly elevated in Gulf War veterans; †Value calculated from data provided in referenced article

criteria require that a patient have a history of chronic widespread pain persisting for at least three
months, and experience pain in response to digital pressure applied to at least 11 of 18 specified locations
on the body, or tender points.1801 Fibromyalgia has been reported to affect two-to-three percent of the
adult population,1340,1549,1774,1799 with rates substantially higher in women than men. Studies have also
consistently demonstrated a high degree of overlap between FM and CFS, with patients diagnosed with
one condition frequently also meeting criteria for the other.2,187,710,1775
An extensive amount of research has been conducted in relation to fibromyalgia—about 4,000 studies are
listed in the National Library of Medicine database. Although the precise pathophysiological mechanisms
underlying FM are not entirely understood, research conducted since the 1990s has provided a number of
important insights. Studies have suggested a genetic predisposition for FM, as indicated by the elevated

Gulf War Illness in Relation to Multisymptom Conditions in the General Population  277

rate of FM among family members of FM patients.64,199,1191 Fibromyalgia has been reported to develop in
conjunction with a variety of conditions and apparent triggers, including physical trauma, infectious
diseases, and emotional stress.1,200,201,348,531 Affected patients have been shown to exhibit abnormalities of
the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis24,294,534,544,1106 as well as autonomic irregularities.974-976,1204 The
hallmark clinical finding associated with fibromyalgia is a significantly reduced threshold for pain, a
phenomenon associated with abnormalities in pain processing mechanisms in the central nervous
system.164,269,516,871,1210,1474
Epidemiologic studies have consistently found that chronic pain is one of the most frequently-reported
symptoms affecting Gulf War veterans, as summarized in Table 2. Clinical studies have also found that a
relatively high proportion of Gulf War veterans referred for rheumatology consults are diagnosed with
fibromyalgia.412,517 In two population-based studies involving clinical evaluation of Gulf War veterans,
the prevalence of FM was estimated to be about two percent.160,393 Although similar to the overall FM
prevalence in the general population, this rate is higher than would be expected in a predominantly male
population of comparable age, and about twice as high as the rate diagnosed in nondeployed Gulf War era
veterans. 393 Additional results from VA’s large clinical study of Gulf War veterans indicate that among
Gulf War veterans with multisymptom illnesses, only a small fraction—about five percent—meet
diagnostic criteria for fibromyalgia.142

Sensitivity to Chemicals and Multiple Chemical Sensitivity in Gulf War Veterans
The condition referred to as multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS), like CFS and FM, is characterized by
diverse types of symptoms in the absence of other explanatory conditions. The unique hallmark of MCS
is that these symptoms are exacerbated by exposure to common chemicals (e.g. household cleaners, motor
vehicle exhaust, perfumes, paint, pesticides, tobacco smoke) at levels that do not cause symptoms in
healthy individuals. Several case definitions for MCS have been proposed and used in different studies,
71,140,299,1006,1408
although none has been widely adopted as a standard. About half of MCS patients report
that their condition first developed after identifiable exposures to chemicals of various types, such as
remodeling their home, occupational exposure to solvents, or exposure to agricultural pesticides.212,1044
Regardless of the presence of an initiating event or specific type of exposure, MCS patients typically
report symptoms in response to a variety of odors and classes of chemicals, often including sensitivity to
specific foods.
Epidemiologic studies indicate that the symptom of being sensitive to common odors or chemicals is
fairly common, affecting between 13 and 33 percent of the general population, with rates higher in
women than men.211,837,1018 Investigators have suggested that self-reported rates of chemical sensitivity
may underestimate the actual extent of the problem, since some individuals may not be aware that
symptoms they experience are triggered or perpetuated by chemical exposures.1042
No studies have yet determined the proportion of the general population who meet criteria for the more
debilitating manifestation of chemical sensitivity, MCS or MCS syndrome, as defined by any of the
proposed case definitions. These criteria generally require that cases be affected by symptoms in multiple
organ systems that are made worse by low-level chemical exposures, and sometimes require that patients
report some type of lifestyle accommodation to minimize such exposures. In general population surveys,
three-to-six percent of respondents have reported being medically diagnosed with MCS or environmental
illness.211,837
There has been considerably less scientific research on MCS than on FM and CFS, and little consensus
with respect to its nature and underlying physiological mechanisms. Historically, persistent reactivity to

278  The Nature of Gulf War Illness

Table 3. Prevalence of Sensitivity to Chemicals and Multiple Chemical Sensitivity Syndrome
Among Gulf War Veterans and Nondeployed Era Veterans

Sensitivity to Chemicals or Odors

Study

Symptom
Measure

Non
deployed
vets

Gulf
War
vets

Multiple Chemical Sensitivity

OR

Australian DVA
200375
Black 2000141

sensitive to chemicals

6%

13 %

1.9*

Fukuda 1998464

sensitive to chemicals
> 6 months

2%

5%

2.6*†

Goss Gilroy 1998511
Gray 2002527

chemical sensitivity
> 1 year

Kang 2000751

sensitive to chemicals

0.7 %

4%

5.9*

8%

15 %

2.0*†

McCauley 2002989

Non
deployed
vets

Gulf
War
vets

OR

self-reported MCS
diagnosis

<1%

<1%

1.3

presumed MCS
based on symptoms

2.6 %

5.4 %

1.9*

presumed MCS
based on symptoms

0.5 %

2.7 %

4.0*

self-reported MCS
diagnosis

0.4 %

1.6 %

4.5*

self-reported MCS
diagnosis

1.2 %

1.2 %

1.0

Multiple Chemical
Sensitivity Measure

Proctor 20011238

symptoms triggered
by odors

2%

14 %

7.6*†

presumed MCS
based on symptoms

0

2.9 %

-

Reid 20011264,1265

symptom response to
any of 11 chemicals

14 %

28 %

2.3*

presumed MCS
based on symptoms

0.2 %

1.3 %

7.2*

Steele 20001476

symptom response to
chemicals > 1 year

4%

17 %

4.6*
self-reported MCS
diagnosis

0.3 %

0.8 %

2.2

Unwin 19991698

Abbreviations: MCS = multiple chemical sensitivity, DVA = Department of Veterans Affairs, OR = odds ratio
Notes: *Odds ratio is significantly elevated in Gulf War veterans; †Value calculated from data provided in referenced article

low-level chemical exposures following an acute initiating exposure was described by Hans Selye in the
1930s.1385 In the 1960s, Theron Randolph diagnosed a chemical maladaptation syndrome in patients
whose diverse symptoms improved after living up to a week in a specially designed chemical-free
environment.1253 Inhaled exposure to the types of chemicals that trigger MCS symptoms have also been
reported to induce or exacerbate diagnosable medical conditions. These include, most prominently,
asthma, rhinosinusitis, and inflammation of the upper airway.175,1019 Physicians who treat chemical injury
have also reported that headache, depression, arthritis, and a persistent intestinal dysfunction syndrome
can be precipitated by common chemical exposures.902,1252,1254
A limited number of studies have investigated possible biological mechanisms underlying MCS. These
have included enhanced neural sensitivity resulting from a time-dependent kindling process elicited by
chemical exposure,50,121,431,1449 a generalized loss of tolerance to chemicals induced by toxic exposures,1043
chronic neurogenic inflammation106,1015 possibly in conjunction with chronic airway
inflammation,358,1016,1017 and behaviorally-conditioned responses to odors.152 Japanese investigators have

Gulf War Illness in Relation to Multisymptom Conditions in the General Population  279

reported that MCS patients have significantly elevated plasma levels of substance P and other
neuroinflammatory mediators, levels that are further increased with exposure to volatile organic
compounds.804 Researchers have also suggested that MCS is associated with other immune and
neuroendocrine abnormalities,604,808,891,1014 although none of the proposed biological mechanisms for MCS
have been extensively studied.
Several studies have evaluated chemical sensitivity and MCS in Gulf War veterans, as shown in Table 3.
Among generally representative groups of Gulf War veterans, 13-17 percent endorse the symptom of
being sensitive to chemicals or odors, with lower rates (4-5%) among Air Force and Navy veterans.
Although the proportion of Gulf War veterans with this symptom appears, overall, to be similar to that in
the general population, it may be higher than rates expected among males of similar age in the general
population, and is significantly higher than rates found in nondeployed Gulf War era veterans. As is the
case for the symptoms of fatigue and widespread pain, the symptom of chemical sensitivity is more
commonly reported by veterans who are ill, or have enrolled in VA’s Gulf War Registry.123,809,1044
As summarized in Table 3, studies have indicated that a much smaller proportion of Gulf War veterans
meet criteria for a MCS syndrome, variously defined, with rates ranging from 1.3 to 5.6 percent. Because
there are no population-based prevalence estimates for defined MCS, it is not clear whether Gulf War
veterans experience higher rates of MCS than the general population. However, studies using MCS–
defining criteria have consistently found MCS to be significantly more common in Gulf War veterans
than in nondeployed era veterans.
Clinical studies have evaluated additional characteristics of Gulf War veterans who report being
chemically sensitive.122,140,1044 For example, research from the University of Arizona and the Tucson
VAMC found that veterans with Gulf War illness were more likely to report being chemically sensitive
before the war than veterans who did not have Gulf War illness.123 In addition, the subset of ill veterans
with increased chemical sensitivity also reported the highest degree of chemical exposures during the war,
particularly exposures to pesticides and insect repellants. Similarly, a U.K. study found a dramatically
elevated MCS risk (ORs = 10.9 – 12.3) among U.K. veterans who reported using personal pesticides
during the war, an association substantially higher than with other reported exposures.1264 A team of
investigators from the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey reported that Gulf War
veterans who met criteria for both CFS and MCS had a significantly greater symptomatic response to
experimental diesel vapor exposure than healthy controls.433 This response was accompanied by
increased autonomic arousal, as indicated by changes in blood pressure and respiratory measures, but not
with measurable declines in cognitive performance.

Is Gulf War Illness the Same as Multisymptom Conditions Found in the General
Population?
Direct comparisons between Gulf War veterans and nonveterans with multisymptom
conditions. Researchers have commonly alluded to similarities between ill Gulf War veterans and
patients diagnosed with CFS, FM, and MCS. But few studies have directly compared illness
characteristics of Gulf War veterans with those of civilian patients with other multisymptom diagnoses.
The general impression that these conditions are similar is largely the result of their “multisymptom”
nature. Only one published study has directly compared symptom frequencies and patterns reported by
Gulf War veterans with those of civilians with the same defined multisymptom diagnosis. Investigators
at Ninewells Hospital and Medical School in Scotland compared the symptoms of three groups who met
CFS case-defining criteria: CFS cases in the general population, individuals with CFS who had served in
the Gulf War, and individuals who developed CFS following occupational exposure to high levels of

280  The Nature of Gulf War Illness

Table 4. Projects Evaluating Biological Measures in Both Ill Gulf War Veterans
and Nonveteran Patients with Defined Multisymptom Conditions
Results similar in
veterans and
nonveterans?
Findings

Study

Groups Studied

Khan800
2004

24 symptomatic Gulf veterans, 52
nonveterans with CFS, 40 healthy
controls

Peckerman1186
1999

no

Enhanced vascular sensitivity to acetylcholine in
peripheral circulation among civilians with CFS,
but not symptomatic Gulf War veterans

29 Gulf veterans with CFS, 31
healthy Gulf veterans, 11
nonveterans with CFS, 29 healthy
nonveterans

no

Gulf veterans with CFS had sign. higher tactile
threshold than healthy veterans. CFS not
associated with differences in tactile thresholds in
nonveterans.

Skowera1419,1420
2004

40 ill Gulf veterans, 80 healthy
Gulf veterans, 35 nonveterans
with CFS, 28 healthy controls

no

Ill Gulf veterans, but not civilians with CFS, exhibit
TH1-type immune activation, increased levels of
IFN-γ, IL-2, and IL-10 producing cells

Stein1481
2004

11 Gulf veterans with FM,
26 nonveterans with FM,
36 healthy controls

yes

Reduced 24-hour heart rate variability in
symptomatic women Gulf War veterans and
women with FM

Vojdani1732
1999

40 ill Gulf veterans, 100
nonveterans with CFS, 40
nonveterans with FM,160 controls

yes

55% of ill Gulf veterans, 52% of CFS patients,
54% of FM patients, and 15% of controls tested
positive for mycoplasma infection

Vladitiu1725
2004

49 Gulf veterans with CFS,
61 nonveterans with CFS,
75 healthy controls

no

Angiotensin-converting enzyme genotype was
associated with CFS among Gulf War veterans but
not with CFS in nonveterans

Zhang1835
1999

43 Gulf veterans with CFS,
68 nonveterans with CFS,
87 healthy controls

no

Gulf War veterans with CFS, but not civilians, had
sign. elevated levels of IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2, and
IL-10

Abbreviations: CFS = chronic fatigue syndrome, FM = fibromyalgia, sign. = statistically significant

organophosphate insecticides. Severity of physical symptoms, overall, was significantly greater in Gulf
War veterans with CFS than in the other two groups. Severity measures for fatigue, muscle and joint
pain, and headaches were particularly prominent in Gulf veterans. Gulf War veterans with CFS were also
more impaired on measures of general health and bodily pain than nonveteran CFS patients.793 In
contrast, investigators from the East Orange, New Jersey, VA, have reported that Gulf veterans diagnosed
with CFS were considerably less disabled by their condition than nonveteran CFS patients.250,1219
A number of research teams have evaluated identical physiological parameters in both symptomatic Gulf
War veterans and multisymptom illness patients from the general population. Results of these studies are
summarized in Table 4. Of the seven studies, five found differences between Gulf War veterans and
nonveteran patients with similarly-defined multisymptom conditions and two found similarities. These
results suggest that there may be some parallels between physiological mechanisms underlying Gulf War
illness and conditions such as CFS and FM, but there also appear to be differences. No definitive
conclusions can be drawn from this small group of studies, however, since they address a limited number
of research questions and have not been replicated in larger, more representative samples. It is interesting
to note, however, that two groups have identified indicators of immune activation that distinguish ill Gulf
War veterans, but not civilian CFS patients, from healthy controls.

Gulf War Illness in Relation to Multisymptom Conditions in the General Population  281

Research findings in multisymptom conditions compared to those in Gulf War illness.
The relationship of Gulf War illness to other multisymptom conditions can also be evaluated by a general
comparison between research findings in Gulf War veterans and those associated with CFS, FM, and
MCS. A large number of studies have investigated a variety of biological mechanisms potentially
underlying CFS and FM, some of which have also been studied in Gulf War veterans. These include
studies evaluating neurological, endocrine, immune, and infectious processes in multisymptom
conditions. In addition, epidemiologic studies have provided a fairly consistent picture of multisymptom
illnesses in the general population, one that differs from epidemiologic patterns associated with Gulf War
illness.
Neuroimaging findings. Neuroimaging studies have identified a variety of differences between
multisymptom illness patients and healthy controls.164,274,1315 Imaging studies have provided useful
insights concerning altered central pain processing in FM patients. Both SPECT and fMRI studies have
identified consistent differences between FM patients and controls in cerebral blood flow responses to
low-level pain stimuli.164,515,1079 A recently-reported positron emission tomography (PET) study indicated
that FM patients exhibit reduced binding of endogenous opioids in brain regions associated with pain
processing, compared to healthy conrtols.587
Studies utilizing structural MRI have reported significantly reduced total volume of gray matter in CFS
patients, compared to controls.322,1143 Regional differences in grey matter volume have also been
described in FM patients.1363 An early report from an ongoing MRI study indicates that symptomatic
Gulf War veterans may have significantly reduced white matter volume, compared to veteran controls.1780
MRI studies have also found evidence of increased ventricular volume and the appearance of scattered
punctuate lesions in the white matter of brains of CFS patients.186,270,863,1375 Foci of increased signal
intensity in white matter have also been described in Gulf War veterans, but these did not differ between
Gulf War illness cases and controls.563
Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H MRS) studies have reported a significantly elevated ratio of
choline to creatinine in the occipital cortex and basal ganglia of CFS patients compared to controls.235,1245
This contrasts with the reduced choline to creatinine ratios identified by one study in the basal ganglia of
subgroups of ill Gulf War veterans, relative to healthy controls.568 In short, brain imaging studies have
provided diverse types of information regarding multisymptom conditions. Studies conducted to date,
however, have not permitted clear comparisons between brain abnormalities in patients with FM and CFS
and those in veterans with Gulf War illness.
Neurocognitive studies. Patients with CFS, FM, MCS, and Gulf War illness commonly report
difficulties with memory and concentration, sometimes referred to as “brain fog” or “fibrofog” by
patients. Research studies evaluating neurocognitive function in CFS and FM patients have identified
objective indicators of impaired information processing, memory, and attention in some patients, although
measured deficits are often not as severe as patients’ subjective impressions of their cognitive
difficulties.434,743,874 Neurocognitive studies of veterans with Gulf War illness have reported similar,
limited types of measurable cognitive impairment, as previously described.864,1497,1512
Autonomic dysregulation. Abnormalities in autonomic nervous system function have been described in
studies of CFS and FM patients, with somewhat inconsistent findings,155,277,323,456,482,974-976,1204 and in
several studies of Gulf War veterans. For example, some studies have reported that FM and CFS patients
have elevated rates of neurally mediated hypotension (NMH), an autonomic abnormality characterized by
a drop in blood pressure after moving to an upright position.157,158,261,467,722,858,1367 A significantly elevated
rate of NMH has also been reported from one study of Gulf War veterans with CFS321 but not in a study
of Gulf War veterans with multisymptom illness.937 Additional studies have demonstrated other ANS
abnormalities in Gulf War illness patients, as previously described.569,1185,1353,1481 The specific nature and

282  The Nature of Gulf War Illness

role of autonomic dysfunction has not been clearly elucidated in Gulf War veterans nor in nonveterans
with multisymptom conditions.
Endocrine measures. Endocrine abnormalities associated with the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis have been associated with both CFS and FM.24,294,333,1170,1210 Reported alterations in HPA
parameters have varied somewhat between studies, and differed between CFS and FM patients. Most
consistently, CFS patients have been shown to have reduced baseline cortisol levels and accompanying
indicators of central adrenal insufficiency, possibly involving modulation of central CRH and 5-HT
feedback loops.256,334,712,1170 There is less information on HPA parameters in FM patients, with conflicting
findings on whether baseline cortisol is normal or low24,294 and two studies indicating enhanced ACTH
response to CRH.294,534 HPA perturbations in both CFS and FM differ from those seen in primary
depression,256,534 which is associated with hyperactive HPA function and elevated cortisol levels.1171 As
previously described, investigators at the Bronx VA Medical Center reported that Gulf War veterans do
not differ from nondeployed veterans on baseline measures of cortisol and ACTH, but that both are
significantly reduced in response to dexamethasone challenge, responses that correlate with veterans’
symptom levels and exposures in theater.501,502
Sleep abnormalities. Unrefreshing sleep and difficulties getting to sleep or staying sleep are among the
most commonly-reported problems associated with multisymptom conditions, including Gulf War illness.
Disturbed sleep and lack of sleep, even in healthy individuals, can result in increased levels of pain and
fatigue and reduced levels of cognitive function.885,1059,1300,1319 Identifiable sleep abnormalities have been
described in multiple studies of FM and CFS patients.189,443,580,834,872,1058,1073,1437,1695 Although sleep
difficulties are commonly reported by ill Gulf War veterans, only two reports have described results of
sleep studies in this population. Researchers from Brooke Army Medical Center reported that, of 192
Gulf War veterans evaluated in their CCEP program, 46 (24 %) were referred for formal sleep evaluation
and 16 (8 %) were diagnosed with sleep apnea.1181 Investigators considered this rate to be lower than that
in CFS patients, and comparable to the rate in the general population. University of Texas Southwestern
investigators reported that symptomatic Gulf War veterans did not differ from healthy control veterans in
any measures evaluated in sleep studies.569
Immune parameters. Research studies have assessed diverse immune parameters in CFS patients, and,
to a lesser degree in FM and MCS patients and in Gulf War veterans. As previously indicated, results of
immunological studies in CFS and FM patients have been mixed.419,603,861,941,1707,1737 Positive findings
most consistently relate to indicators of low-level immune activation or limited deficits in immune
response (reduced activity of NK cells and cytotoxic T cells) in CFS patients.186,208,814,958,1174,1200,1328,1329,1745
Elevated levels of some cytokines have been associated with symptoms of fatigue, cognitive impairment,
muscle pain, respiratory distress, and altered sleep patterns and mood in other medical
conditions224,572,901,1424,1736 and may also be associated with these symptoms in patients with multisymptom
illnesses. A recent study identified elevated levels of white blood cells and cytokines in the cerebrospinal
fluid of a subgroup of CFS patients, pointing to possible immune dysregulation within the central nervous
systems of this group.1099 Alterations in an antiviral pathway (2-5A synthetase/RNAse L) have been
reported in some CFS patients.1122,1511,1543 Subgroups said to be affected include CFS patients with
evidence of viral activation, and those who developed multisymptom illness following chemical
exposures.1510,1733
Many of the immune parameters reported in CFS and FM patients have not been evaluated in Gulf War
veterans. As previously described, however, several research teams have identified evidence of reduced
NK cell function812,1734,1835 and low level immune activation in symptomatic Gulf War veterans.1420,1835
Taken together, these studies indicate that Gulf War illness, as well as CFS and perhaps FM, are
associated with variable immune perturbations, although a signature immune abnormality has not been
clearly established for any multisymptom condition. Studies suggest that reduced NK cell activity may

Gulf War Illness in Relation to Multisymptom Conditions in the General Population  283

be common to both CFS and Gulf War illness. But two studies have reported that measures of cellular
immunity differ between symptomatic Gulf War veterans and CFS patients.1420,1835
Infectious agents in multisymptom illnesses. Infectious agents have long been thought to play a role
in either triggering or perpetuating the symptoms of some patients with CFS and FM. Elevated rates of
fibromyalgia have been reported among patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis
C, and Lyme borreliosis.198,201,348 Prospective studies have also demonstrated that a subset of patients
develop CFS following different types of acute viral infection.209,796,875,1718,1776,1777,1787 Although findings
have been mixed, some studies have identified elevated viral titers in CFS and FM patients who have
been ill for prolonged periods—most prominently human herpes viruses and enteroviruses—suggesting a
possible role for reactivation of latent viruses in multisymptom conditions.7,186,243,360,471,493,822,1100,1499,1797
An association between mycoplasma infection and chronic multisymptom illness has been suggested for
both veteran and nonveteran populations.402,1118 Standard serological evaluations have not detected
evidence of mycoplasma infection in either Gulf War illness patients525,923 or civilians with CFS.829
However, studies using specialized polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods have detected excess rates
of mycoplasma infection in both symptomatic Gulf War veterans355,1732 and in civilians with CFS and
FM.1095,1114,1123,1731,1732
Genetic parameters. A number of studies have indicated that multisymptom illnesses—both in the
general population and in Gulf War veterans—occur at higher rates among individuals with specific
genetic vulnerabilities or predispositions. Fibromyalgia and CFS have been reported to aggregate in
families64,199,1750 with CFS occurring at particularly elevated rates in identical twins of CFS cases.188,1513
Findings related to CFS and HLA genotype have been mixed,783,1429,1693 but several specific genetic
differences have been found to distinguish multisymptom illness patients from healthy controls. These
include associations between CFS and polymorphisms of the corticosteroid-binding globulin gene1550 and
between FM and polymorphisms in both serotonin receptor genes154,452 and a gene that encodes an
enzyme that inactivates catecholamines.546 Chronic fatigue syndrome, but not FM, has been associated
with serotonin transporter gene variants.545,1094,1141
As previously described, one study has reported that Gulf War illness is associated with a variant in
position 192 of the PON1 gene, which encodes for paraoxonase, an enzyme involved in neutralizing sarin
and organophosphate pesticides.561 Other studies have reported associations between PON1 enzyme
activity and Gulf War illness or Gulf War service.645,947,1353 Canadian researchers have reported that
women with MCS are significantly more likely than controls to be heterozygous for the PON1 gene at
positions 192 and 55. 1005 These results are consistent with views that both MCS and Gulf War illness are
related, in some individuals, to biological vulnerability to particular types of environmental exposures.
Multisymptom illness parameters not evaluated in Gulf War veterans. A variety of biological
parameters have been studied in civilian patients with FM and CFS, but have not yet been evaluated in ill
Gulf War veterans. As previously described, recent progress in understanding FM has resulted from
studies demonstrating that the chronic pain of FM likely results from abnormal pain processing in the
central nervous system. Studies have reported that FM patients have abnormally high cerebrospinal fluid
levels of substance P, a neuropeptide involved in pain signal transmission.1333,1702 Additional findings
indicate that FM patients have reduced levels of an enzyme, prolyl endopeptidase, that can break down
substance P as well as other neuropeptides associated with central pain processing.952,1330 Fibromyalgia
patients have also been shown to have reduced levels of norepinephrine metabolites and, in some patients,
reduced serotonin levels.1106,1332,1800,1831 Two studies have reported that CFS patients have reduced levels
of serotonergic receptors and transporters in the brain.258,1815 Increased levels of substance P have been
reported in MCS patients,804 but not CFS patients.420 None of the neuropeptides studied in relation to
these conditions have yet been evaluated in ill Gulf War veterans.

284  The Nature of Gulf War Illness

In recent years, research teams in the U.S. and U.K. have used microarray technologies to compare gene
expression in the blood cells of CFS patients and healthy controls. Such studies can potentially provide
insights into the pathophysiology of CFS and lay the groundwork for developing biomarkers and
treatments. Genes differentially expressed in CFS patients have included those associated with basic
metabolic processes as well as immune and neuronal function.776,1482,1717,1769 A massive project
undertaken by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) integrated genomic
information with epidemiologic and clinical data obtained from a large population-based study of CFS
patients and controls.1716 These data, analyzed by multiple groups from different disciplines, supported
previous observations that patients meeting CFS criteria are heterogeneous. Specific differences in gene
expression that distinguished CFS cases from healthy controls included genes related to function of the
HPA axis, immune function, and a number of neurotransmitter systems. More recently, British
investigators have identified seven CFS patient subgroups, based on different patterns of gene expression,
groups that also differed in their clinical characteristics.795 No information of this type is yet available in
relation to Gulf War illness, although a genomic profile study is currently underway at the Miami VA and
another is planned at UTSW.
Epidemiologic comparisons between Gulf War illness and multisymptom conditions in
the general population. From an epidemiologic perspective, Gulf War illness is very different from
multisymptom conditions like CFS and FM. Chronic fatigue syndrome and FM are generally not
identified at high rates in large defined populations, but develop sporadically in different individuals and
under different circumstances. In contrast, Gulf War illness developed within a relatively short time
period in a well-defined group of individuals who were, in 1990, much healthier on average than people
in the general population. After a shared experience, deployment to the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations,
this group developed a much-higher-than-normal rate of unexplained symptoms and multisymptom
illness. Gulf War illness, from this perspective, more closely resembles an illness associated with an
epidemic or a common hazardous exposure than it does CFS or FM.
One of the most striking differences between Gulf War illness and other multisymptom conditions relates
to the population groups who are most affected. In the general population, CFS, FM, and MCS affect
women at much higher rates than men. CFS and MCS also disproportionately affect those age 40-60,
compared to younger and older age groups. Gulf War illness occurs in a distinctly different pattern.
About seven percent of U.S. troops who served in the Gulf War were women.1594 On a proportional basis,
however, women are affected by Gulf War illness at the same464,753,1699 or only slightly higher
rates142,160,1476,1804 than men. Studies have also not found that veterans over age 40 have higher Gulf War
illness rates. In fact, several studies have reported that younger veterans are more affected by Gulf War
illness than older veterans.160,753,1476
As previously described, there has been considerable discussion about the extent to which symptomdefined conditions such as FM, CFS, and MCS themselves represent distinct disease entities. Studies
have indicated a high degree of overlap between patients meeting criteria for these conditions, with 58 –
70 percent of FM patients meeting CFS criteria187,1775 and 40 percent of CFS patients meeting criteria for
MCS.710 In general, Gulf War illness appears not to overlap with these conditions to the same extent,250
although the degree of overlap depends on how Gulf War illness is defined. The largest clinical study of
Gulf War veterans found that only 5-6 percent of Gulf War veterans with multisymptom illness met
criteria for CFS or FM.142 A smaller study from the Pacific Northwest found that, after clinical
evaluation, 25 percent of veterans who met Oregon criteria for Gulf War illness also met criteria for FM,
18 percent met CFS criteria, and 19 percent reported symptoms of chemical sensitivity.160
Treatments for multisymptom illnesses. Identifying effective treatments for conditions whose
pathophysiological mechanisms are not clearly understood has been an ongoing challenge both for Gulf
War illness and for multisymptom conditions in the general population. Over the years, numerous studies
have evaluated the effectiveness of many different types of therapeutic interventions for CFS and FM.

Gulf War Illness in Relation to Multisymptom Conditions in the General Population  285

Most notably, a burgeoning number of clinical trials have evaluated new pharmacologic treatments for
FM in recent years.8 The majority of tested drugs act on one or more neurotransmitter systems. Drugs
that inhibit uptake of both serotonin and norepinephrine have been shown to provide significant
improvement in pain and other symptoms for FM patients, and global improvements in function. These
include pregabalin,295,1011 milnacipran,479,886,1724 and duloxetine.65,66 Symptomatic and functional
improvements have also been reported from early studies of the serotonin reuptake inhibitor
paroxetine,1176 the selective serotonin-3 antagonist tropisetron,594,1382 the dopamine agonist
pramipexole,619 and the synthetic cannabinoid nabilone.1422 Pregabalin, marketed as Lyrica, became the
first drug to receive FDA approval for the treatment of FM in 2007.1666 In 2008 a second drug,
duloxetine (trade name Cymbalta), was approved for FM treatment.398
Studies of graded exercise and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) have consistently demonstrated
benefit for FM patients, yielding improvements in both functional status and symptoms.196,962,1318,1410
Antidepressant medications have also been shown to benefit some FM patients, providing significant
improvements in somatic symptoms, as well as mood and functional status. 1154,1318,1545 Researchers report
that the most optimal FM treatment strategies combine pharmacologic with nonpharmacologic
interventions.292,1256,1318 A variety of complementary therapies have been suggested for their potential in
benefiting FM patients, but relatively few have been studied.293 Acupuncture treatment has been
evaluated in multiple trials for its effectiveness in relieving FM symptoms, with mixed results.73,128,588,1413
Suggestive evidence of benefit has also been reported from small studies of massage therapy166 and
several nutritional supplements.701,1023,1331,1526
A 2001 systematic review identified 350 CFS treatment studies, including 44 controlled treatment trials,
in the published literature.1783 This and similar projects have identified a number of treatment approaches
that appear to benefit CFS patients, providing improvements both in symptoms and level of function.
However, evidence related to many treatments is often too scant to provide firm conclusions.1084,1286,1783
The most consistent treatment benefits for CFS have been demonstrated from studies of graded exercise
and CBT.389,1233 Studies of immune-related therapies have provided mixed findings1084,1783 with the most
promising results obtained from infusions of the drug Ampligen.1501,1510 Studies indicate that
antidepressant medications provide limited benefits for some CFS patients, with improvements in energy
that are not related to the antidepressant effects of the drugs.606,1097
Studies have reported that glucocorticoids may provide some symptomatic benefit for CFS patients,257,1004
but one concluded that adverse effects of these medications outweigh their benefits.1004 Smaller studies
have also suggested therapeutic benefit from antiviral drugs in CFS patients with evidence of herpes virus
infection,825,888 from the antibiotic azithromycin,1714 and from a multimodal treatment that addresses
endocrine and nutritional parameters identified in individual patients.1529 Preliminary indications of
benefit have also come from studies evaluating complementary therapies such as osteopathic
treatment,1197 massage therapy,437 magnesium,286 NADH,451 and essential fatty acids.120 The quality and
size of these studies, however, were not sufficient to support firm conclusions concerning treatment
effectiveness.
Graded exercise therapy and CBT have also been studied for their effectiveness in treating Gulf War
illness in a large multicenter trial conducted by VA and DOD.354 Cognitive behavioral therapy provided
substantial improvement for just 18 percent of ill Gulf War veterans, compared to the 11 percent who
improved with usual treatment, while graded exercise provided no benefit over usual treatment. Results
indicated these treatments may be less helpful for veterans with Gulf War illness than for civilian patients
with CFS and FM.639
Very little scientific information is available regarding treatments that are effective for MCS. Although
not evaluated in formal trials, patients have reported that avoidance of chemicals and odors that
exacerbate MCS-related symptoms has been most useful for them in reducing symptoms of this

286  The Nature of Gulf War Illness

condition.488 Chemical avoidance has not been studied in ill Gulf War veterans, although one VA
clinician has testified that her use of this approach, in conjunction with dietary modifications, provided
improvement for her Gulf War veteran patients with chemical sensitivity.1399
Summary. Gulf War illness in relation to multisymptom conditions in the general
population. Parallels are commonly drawn between Gulf War illness and symptom-defined conditions
such as chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), fibromyalgia (FM), and multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS)
found in the general population. Research studies, however, have identified both similarities and
differences between Gulf War illness and these conditions. The prevalence of CFS in Gulf War veterans
is unique, and dramatically higher than CFS rates in nondeployed veterans and the general population.
Rates of FM and MCS are also elevated in Gulf War veterans, but to a lesser degree. It is clear from
multiple studies, however, that case definitions used to define CFS, FM, and MCS do not adequately
describe the chronic symptom pattern that affects Gulf War veterans at excess rates. Only a fraction of
veterans with Gulf War illness can be diagnosed with CFS, FM, or MCS. The epidemiologic profile of
Gulf War illness is also unique. Unlike CFS and FM, Gulf War illness occurs in a pattern consistent with
a common exposure, and affects female and male veterans at about the same rate.
Studies have also provided indicators of physiological similarities and differences between Gulf War
illness and other multisymptom conditions. Many objective measures associated with CFS and FM in the
general population, however, have not yet been evaluated in veterans with Gulf War illness. General
similarities may be reflected in indicators of autonomic dysregulation and neurocognitive impairment in
Gulf War illness, FM, and CFS, and by indications that Gulf War illness and MCS are linked to genetic
variants of the PON1 enzyme. In contrast, studies have identified immune parameters that differ between
veterans with Gulf War illness and civilians with CFS, and neuroimaging studies have not thus far
identified specific abnormalities that are common to Gulf War illness and CFS or FM. Cognitive
behavioral therapy and exercise were found to be less beneficial for Gulf War illness than for CFS and
FM. But the extent to which other treatments useful in treating CM and CFS could improve symptoms
and function in ill Gulf War veterans is not known.
Much remains to be learned about the pathophysiology of Gulf War illness, as well as the biological
mechanisms that underlie conditions such as CFS, FM, and MCS that occur in the general population.
Because of possible similarities in some physiological processes underlying these conditions, it is
important that findings related both to biological abnormalities and treatments for these conditions be
evaluated in veterans with Gulf War illness. But until Gulf War illness is better characterized
physiologically, the degree to which it overlaps with other multisymptom conditions remains largely a
matter of conjecture.

Gulf War Illness in Relation to Multisymptom Conditions in the General Population  287

Recommendations
Research studies have demonstrated both differences and similarities between Gulf War illness and
multisymptom conditions found in the general population. Symptom complexes consistent with defined
chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), fibromyalgia (FM), and multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS) are found
in Gulf War veterans at elevated rates, but account for only a fraction of the excess morbidity affecting
Gulf War veterans. Research related to these conditions may provide useful insights regarding biological
processes that underlie veterans’ symptoms, treatment interventions that may benefit ill veterans, and
research methodologies useful in studying syndromes defined primarily by symptoms. The Committee
therefore recommends the following research:
 Studies that determine the extent to which objective measures that distinguish CFS, FM, and MCS
patients from healthy controls are also associated with Gulf War illness. Such studies should include
comprehensive evaluation of autonomic function and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal parameters in ill
veterans, studies of immune and inflammatory parameters associated with multisymptom illnesses,
evidence of infection by herpes viruses and enteropathogens, identification of cerebrospinal fluid
levels of neuropeptides associated with central pain processing, and genomic and proteomic
evaluation of blood and cerebrospinal fluid of veterans with Gulf War illness.
 Pilot studies and, where indicated by preliminary evidence, clinical trials to determine whether
veterans with Gulf War illness benefit from therapies shown to improve the health of patients with
FM and CFS.
The Committee also recommends that federal Gulf War illness research programs coordinate efforts
with federal research programs that focus on other multisymptom conditions like CFS and FM.

288  The Nature of Gulf War Illness

4| Federal Research on Gulf War Illness and
the Health of Gulf War Veterans
In addition to reviewing scientific studies and government reports, the Committee is charged with
reviewing federal research programs established to address health consequences of the 1991 Gulf War.
As with other aspects of its work, the Committee’s assessment of these programs is guided by the premise
that the purpose of this research is, ultimately, to improve the health of ill Gulf War veterans. In its
ongoing review of Gulf War research, the Committee has emphasized the importance of high quality
studies that provide insights into biological processes underlying veterans’ symptoms or contribute
directly to identifying diagnostic tests and treatments. Although the government has sponsored some
studies of this nature, these central objectives have not historically been the focus of federal Gulf War
research programs.
Developing research programs capable of determining the nature and causes of Gulf War illness, and
identifying effective treatments, has proven to be a difficult challenge for the agencies tasked with this
responsibility. In the seventeen years since the war, hundreds of millions of federal dollars have been
spent on Gulf War research. Many federally-funded studies have provided valuable insights regarding the
health of Gulf War veterans. But much of the federal research has not usefully advanced understanding
of Gulf War illness or other Gulf War-related health problems. Consequently, important questions have
remained unanswered. The unsatisfactory pace of progress can be attributed to a variety of factors,
including federal agencies’ long-time emphasis on research that was peripheral to priority Gulf War
health issues.
Some observers have suggested that the Departments of Defense and Veterans Affairs should not have
been given primary responsibility for conducting and managing research on Gulf War–related health
problems.137,1562,1684 One reason relates to the scientifically complex nature of the required research and
the need for a multifaceted, highly coordinated effort involving top investigators—the type of scientific
program for which these agencies are not ideally suited. There is also a common perception that federal
policy makers have not vigorously pursued key research in this area and that federal agencies have
disincentives—whether political or fiscal—for providing definitive answers to Gulf War health questions.
Historically, the situation parallels delayed federal responses to health problems stemming from
hazardous exposures in earlier wars, such as consequences of radiation exposure in World War II and
effects of herbicides in Vietnam. Although cynical, such views are reinforced by the slow progress made
by federal agencies in addressing fundamental questions about the nature, causes, and treatments for Gulf
War illness.
In its 2004 report, the Committee described systemic problems in the federal Gulf War research effort.
Federal programs were not designed or managed to achieve identified research objectives related to Gulf
War illness or other Gulf War health issues.1268 The Committee has had continuing concerns about Gulf
War research programs since 2004. Regrettably, seventeen years after the war, this research still has not
provided tangible results in improving the health of ill Gulf War veterans. In 2006 and 2007 however,
new developments in the management and federal funding of Gulf War research have provided positive
indications that priority Gulf War research issues can now be more effectively addressed.

Federal Research on Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans  289

Historical Funding and Management of Federal Gulf War Research
Since 1992, the U.S. federal government has reported expenditures of hundreds of millions of dollars for
hundreds of individual research projects related to the health of Gulf War veterans.340 This research has
been funded by three agencies: the Department of Defense (DOD), the Department of Veterans Affairs
(VA) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) within the Department of Health and
Human Services. The Persian Gulf Veterans Coordinating Board, an interagency committee of
representatives from the three agencies, was formed in 1994 to plan and coordinate the federal response to
health problems affecting veterans of the 1991 Gulf War1274 Since 1997, this board and its successor, the
Deployment Health Working Group, have provided annual reports to Congress describing federally
sponsored research on Gulf War veterans’ illnesses. Although the reports identify substantial federal
expenditures for Gulf War research, administration and use of these funds have historically been
problematic.
As demonstrated throughout the present report, many individual federally-sponsored studies have been
highly productive and provided extremely valuable insights into the nature and causes of Gulf War
illness. Overall, however, there have been persistent shortcomings in federal Gulf War research
programs. Foremost have been problems related to the specific types of studies selected for funding and
the overall lack of cohesion and results-focused management of the federal Gulf War research effort.
Many of the funded projects identified as “Gulf War research” in the federal portfolio have had little if
anything to do with the health of Gulf War veterans. And a substantial proportion of funded studies have,
historically, focused on stress and psychiatric disease as the central explanation for Gulf War illness,
despite accumulated evidence to the contrary.
Federal expenditures for Gulf War research. The Deployment Health Working Group, each year
in an annual report to Congress, identifies the amount of federal funding allocated for studies identified as
research on Gulf War veterans’ illnesses. As shown in Figure 1, total funding levels have varied from
year to year, reaching their peak between 1999 and 2001, when total expenditures ranged from 43 to 50

Annual Funding ($ millions)

Figure 1. Total Funding For Studies Identified as Gulf War Research by Federal Agencies:
1994 – 2007

50
40
30
20
10
0
1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

Direct Costs

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

Indirect Costs

Sources: Deployment Health Working Group Annual Reports to Congress, 2003-2007336-340
Note: References indicate that indirect costs were calculated as 30% of direct costs.336

290  Federal Research on Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

2004

2005

2006

2007

million dollars annually. In all, 345 distinct projects categorized as Gulf War research were sponsored by
the federal government between 1992 and 2007.340
The exact amount spent by the U.S. government on Gulf War research has been obscured to some degree
by differences in how federal funding has been calculated and presented to Congress from year to year.
For example, early interagency reports identified annual funding totals, by year, from 1994 onward.
Since 2004, funding details for projects funded more than 10 years earlier have been dropped from the
reports, and expenditures for those projects no longer included in cumulative totals. In addition, reports
in some years identified funding for both direct and indirect costs, but in other years included only direct
costs. In some cases, total expenditures reported for a given year have varied. For example, federal Gulf
War FY2005 research expenditures were reported as $16.2 million in the 2005 Annual Report to
Congress, but later reported as $21.6 million in the 2006 Annual Report to Congress, and as $20.1 million
in the 2007 report.338-340 Such year-to-year inconsistencies have introduced substantial uncertainty in
identifying the precise amount spent by the federal government on Gulf War research.
Taking into account these uncertainties, estimated federal expenditures between 1994 and 2007 for
projects identified as Gulf War Research have totaled $340 million in direct costs, and $442 million if
indirect costs are considered at the historical rate of 30 percent, as indicated in some interagency annual
reports to Congress. These summary estimates are based on figures provided in the Deployment Health
Working Group’s most recent Annual Report to Congress for fiscal years (FY) 1997 through 2007340 and
pre-1997 figures provided in the 2003 Annual Report to Congress.336
The Committee reported in 2004 that the majority of federal funding for Gulf War research had
historically been provided by the Department of Defense. But as shown in Figure 2, DOD support for
Gulf War illness research declined substantially after 2001. Few new Gulf War projects were funded by
DOD between 2003 and 2006, although support continued for previously approved multiyear projects.
Research funded by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services has consistently represented only
a small fraction of total Gulf War expenditures. Total expenditures have ranged from $1.6 million
annually between 1998 and 2000 to less than $0.5 million annually between 2004 and 2007.

Annual Funding ($ millions)

Figure 2. Direct Funding for Studies Identified as Gulf War Research
by the U.S. Department of Defense and U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs: 1994 - 2007

30

20

10

0
1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

Department of Defense Funding

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Department of Veterans Affairs Funding

Sources: Deployment Health Working Group, Annual Reports to Congress, 2003-2007336-340

Historical Funding and Management of Federal Gulf War Research  291

Since 2002, VA has sponsored a steadily increasing proportion of federal Gulf War research, although
this increase has not matched the dramatic decline in funding at DOD. The large majority of new Gulf
War research projects initiated after 2003 have been funded by VA.
As pointed out in the Committee’s 2004 report, if progress in the Gulf War research effort were to be
measured by the number of dollars spent, or the number of projects funded, it might be argued that the
federal government has mounted an impressive research effort on behalf of ill Gulf War veterans. But the
Committee is committed to assessing federal Gulf War research in terms of its scientific merit and
progress made in improving the health of ill veterans. Although substantial funding has been allocated
for studies identified as “Gulf War research” by federal agencies since 1994, the Committee has identified
significant problems related to the effective use and management of these funds.
Many “Gulf War” studies in the federal Gulf War research portfolio have not addressed
Gulf War-related issues. A prominent concern over the years has been that many of the studies
identified as “Gulf War Research” in the federal research portfolio have been unrelated, or only
marginally related to the health of veterans who served in the 1991 Gulf War. Representative examples
are provided in Table 1.
Table 1. Examples of Federally-Funded Studies Identified as “Gulf War Research”
that have Little Relevance to Health Problems Resulting from Gulf War Service
Project
Number

Year Initially
Funded

Amount
Funded

DOD-143

2000

$18,224,000 Millennium Cohort Study

DOD-108

1999

$ 1,107,996 Health Status of Current National Guard Members

VA-047

1997

$ 1,089,060 Retrospective Verification of Mustard Gas Exposure

DOD-145

2001

$ 800,000 Early Intervention Research Program to Enhance Soldier Resilience

DOD-140

2001

$ 764,879 U.S. Department of Defense Surveillance for Neoplasms in Infancy

DOD-097

1999

$ 626,244 Surveillance of B. Pertussis Among Military Trainees with Respiratory
Disease: Development and Validation of a Highly Sensitive PCR and Beacon
Probe based Methods for Diagnosis of Pertussis

DOD-083

1997

$ 299,700 Risk for Stress-Related Substance Abuse: Effects of Family History of
Alcoholism

Study Title

339,340

Sources: Deployment Health Working Group Annual Report to Congress, 2006-2007

The Millenium Cohort study, for example, received over $18 million in DOD funding between 2000 and
2007. This ambitious project involves long-term assessment of an initial sample of nearly 80,000
personnel serving in the military in and after October, 2000.522,1336 The study includes relatively few
personnel who served in the 1991 Gulf War—all presumably in good enough health to remain in the
military 10 years after the war.1427 Some other projects identified as “Gulf War Research” in interagency
reports to Congress have even less connection to the health consequences of Gulf War service. These
include studies of infectious diseases, such as pertussis, never identified in Gulf War veterans. It also
includes studies to develop tests for mustard gas, although DOD has identified only one Gulf War veteran
with a possible, but “indeterminate” exposure to mustard.1614
The Committee is not questioning the scientific merit or the need for the types of projects listed in Table
1. But labeling these studies as “Gulf War Research” in Congressional reports is misleading and has

292  Federal Research on Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

given the impression to Congress and the general public that more federal funding has been provided for
research on the health of Gulf War veterans than has actually been the case. Use of Gulf War research
funds for studies with minimal connection to the health of Gulf War veterans has also meant less support
for studies that do specifically address health consequences of the 1991 Gulf War.
Excess emphasis on studies of stress and psychiatric illness in federally-funded Gulf
War research. A second major concern relates to the use of substantial amounts of Gulf War research
funding for studies focused exclusively on psychiatric disorders and psychological stress. Putative
relationships between Gulf War illness, wartime stress, and psychiatric disorders were reasonable areas to
investigate in the early years after the war, when little was understood about Gulf War-related conditions.
The emphasis on studies focused on stress and psychiatric disorders in the federal Gulf War research
portfolio has continued into recent years, however, long after multiple studies demonstrated that Gulf War
illness is not explained by psychological stress and that relatively few Gulf War veterans have psychiatric
disorders.
The Committee considers research on the effects of combat and war-related trauma to be extremely
important for military populations in general. But such issues are notably less prominent among Gulf
War-related health concerns, compared to other warzone deployments.689,969 Among the many unique
aspects of the 1991 Gulf War were the short duration of hostilities, the limited number of troops affected
by combat and other traumatic experiences, and the relatively low number of Gulf War veterans who
developed psychiatric disorders. The use of significant amounts of Gulf War research funding for studies
focused on stress has been inappropriate, based on what is known about the Gulf War and the health of
Gulf War veterans.
The Committee also noted that the prominence of psychological research in the federal Gulf War research
portfolio has not been readily apparent in interagency reports to Congress. These reports categorize
federal Gulf War research projects into five topic areas: (1) Brain and Nervous System Function, (2)
Environmental Toxicology, (3) Immune Function and Infectious Diseases, (4) Reproductive Health, and
(5) Symptoms and General Health.339,340 There is no category for psychological or psychiatric research.
Instead, studies of this type are identified as “Brain and Nervous System Function” research, the category
that has historically included the largest number of Gulf War projects. It includes all research—both
clinical and basic laboratory studies—related to stress and psychiatric illness, along with research that is
more commonly considered brain and nervous system research, such as neuroimaging and ALS studies.
As shown in Table 2, examples include a nearly $5 million study of cognitive behavioral therapy for
posttraumatic stress disorder, primarily due to sexual trauma, that did not focus on Gulf War veterans,1364
a $1 million trial of two medical treatments for PTSD in OIF/OEF veterans, and a trial of a provider
education program to improve treatment for major depression in primary care.
The types of studies listed in Table 2 may have importance for military populations in general, but would
more accurately be identified as psychological or psychiatric research than as research on the brain and
nervous system. Further, these projects are not focused on Gulf War veterans or health issues that
prominently affect Gulf War veterans. In identifying stress-related studies as brain research in
interagency reports to Congress, the Deployment Health Working Group has obscured the historical
emphasis on stress and psychiatric research in federal Gulf War research programs, and provided an
inflated impression of the number of studies focused on central nervous system abnormalities in Gulf War
veterans.
In its 2004 report, the Committee pointed out that 57 percent of VA’s projected 2003 Gulf War research
expenditures would support studies of psychological factors and stress.335,1268 In response, then-Secretary
of Veterans Affairs Anthony Principi pledged that VA Gulf War research funding would no longer be
used for studies focused on stress as the central cause of Gulf War illness.473,1644,1648 Although previously

Historical Funding and Management of Federal Gulf War Research  293

Table 2. Examples of Psychiatric and Stress-Related Studies Identified as
Gulf War Research on Brain and Nervous System Function in Reports to Congress
Project
Number

Year First Amount
Funded
Funded

DOD-125
VA-74

2001

$4,892,743

A Randomized Clinical Trial of Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment for PTSD in
Women

DOD-166

2005

$1,000,000

A Placebo-Controlled Trial of Prazosin vs. Paroxetine in Combat StressInduced PTSD Nightmares and Sleep Disturbance

DOD-144

1999

$ 954,000

Psychological Health Screening: Methods and Metrics for Deployed Forces

VA-087

2002

$ 572,271

Improving Outcomes of Depression in Primary Care

VA-086

2002

$ 410,494

A Clinical Trial of Magnetic Stimulation in Depression

DOD-092

1997

$ 249,700

Traumatic Experiences Persistently Enhance Cue-dependent Learning:
toward an Animal Model of Chronic Stress and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

DOD-082

1997

$ 172,000

Feasibility of Developing a Registry of PTSD Affected Veteran Sib Pairs

Study Title

Source: Deployment Health Working Group Annual Report to Congress, 2006339

approved studies continued to be funded after the Secretary’s announcement, VA has now sharply
reduced the number of newly-funded Gulf War studies focused on stress and psychiatric disorders.
Lack of a cohesive federal Gulf War research program managed to achieve identified
scientific objectives. A pervasive problem, described over the years in reports from the U.S. General
Accounting Office,1672,1677,1682 and more recently in the Research Advisory Committee’s 2004 report,1268
relates to the lack of management of the overall federal Gulf War research program to achieve identified
research goals. Specifically, the federal Gulf War research effort has not been organized or managed to
meet priority objectives such as identifying diagnostic markers and treatments for Gulf War illness, or
determining its cause.
In 1993, the “Persian Gulf Interagency Research Coordinating Council” was established to plan and
coordinate research on the health of Gulf War veterans. This task is now assigned to a successor group,
the Research Subcommittee of the Deployment Health Working Group.1274 The interagency group
developed a working research plan in 1995 that was subsequently revised.1198 The group’s plan initially
targeted three priority research areas related to the health of Gulf War veterans, and later identified 21
priority research questions. These questions were reformulated into a corresponding list of 21 research
topics in 2004.337 Interagency annual reports to Congress point out that “the comprehensive Gulf War
research portfolio has addressed each of these 21 questions, and relevant results have been published on
each one.”339 No assessment is provided, however, of the degree to which long-established priority
questions have been answered or research objectives have been met by the federal Gulf War research
effort.
The Committee recognizes that over the years, research studies have been funded that relate, in some
way, to each of the 21 identified research categories. But this falls considerably short of a wellcoordinated federal program with a management structure capable of achieving identified research
objectives. Such a program requires that strategies be in place to identify and fund specific studies most
capable of providing long-needed answers to priority questions. It also requires ongoing assessment of
the degree to which identified objectives have been met or require revision.
Identifying funded projects according to which of 21 research categories they fall into is not the same as
establishing and managing a research program to provide answers to priority scientific questions. The

294  Federal Research on Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

interagency group tasked with coordinating the Gulf War research effort appears to have served primarily
in the role of cataloguing and reporting federally-sponsored studies identified as “Gulf War research,” not
as managers of an effective, well-coordinated federal research program.
In its 2004 report, the Committee’s initial programmatic recommendation was that VA, in conjunction
with other federal agencies, develop a comprehensive federal research plan to address priority Gulf War
research questions. Since the Committee’s 2004 report, a number of funding and management changes
have taken place in the federal Gulf War research effort. For example, most newly-funded Gulf War
research projects have been sponsored by VA, following commitments made by the Secretary of Veterans
Affairs to support an expanded Gulf War research effort.1640,1644 In contrast, the Department of Defense
has greatly reduced funding for Gulf War-specific research. But over this period, regrettably, the federal
Gulf War research portfolio has generally continued to reflect a haphazard mix of studies not indicative of
a clear scientific plan or coordinated effort.
The overall focus and management of federal Gulf War research in recent years is described below for
each of the three contributing agencies. A number of programmatic changes and improvements have
been evident during this time, particularly at VA. The most significant changes in the direction and
management of Gulf War research, however, have occurred as a result of Congressional actions in 2006,
which provided funding for dramatic new directions in Gulf War research at both VA and DOD.
Gulf War Research at the Department of Veterans Affairs
In 2004, the Committee described shortfalls in the types of studies that constituted VA’s Gulf War
research portfolio, and problems in methods used by VA for soliciting and funding Gulf War research
proposals. At that time, VA funding projections for 2003 indicated that the majority of VA’s Gulf War
research spending would support studies related to stress and psychiatric illness.335,1268 Since then, the
Committee has continued to assess the focus of VA-funded Gulf War research studies and the processes
used for funding research proposals.
VA Gulf War programmatic changes and initiatives. In its 2004 report, the Committee described
administrative issues that had contributed, over the years, to an unacceptable profile of research projects
in VA’s Gulf War research portfolio. One major problem related to the content of VA’s research funding
announcements. Another was VA’s use of standing merit review panels for scientific review of Gulf
War-related proposals. This meant that Gulf War research studies proposed by VA investigators were
often judged for their scientific merit by scientists unfamiliar with research issues and findings on the
health of Gulf War veterans. Since the 2004 report, both of these issues have been directly addressed by
VA’s Office of Research and Development (ORD).
When it became apparent midway through FY2004 that VA had funded less than $500,000 of Secretary
Principi’s pledge of up to $20 million in new Gulf War research that year,1640 VA ORD issued a special
request for applications (RFA) for Gulf War research in April, 2004. This was the first VA Gulf Warrelated solicitation to specifically prioritize research on physiological consequences of service in the 1991
Gulf War. The RFA indicated that VA was most interested in funding studies on immune and
neurological processes associated with Gulf War illness, and neurological disorders in Gulf War
veterans.1658 The announcement attracted 49 proposals, which were reviewed by a special ad-hoc
scientific panel that included scientists with expertise in Gulf War illness, epidemiology,
neuropsychology, and neurotoxicology.497 Fourteen new Gulf War projects were funded in response to
the 2004 Gulf War RFA.
The Department of Veterans Affairs also issued a special Gulf War request for proposals (RFP) in June,
2005. This solicitation emphasized VA’s interest in funding projects focused on understanding and

Gulf War Research at the Department of Veterans Affairs  295

treating Gulf War illness, on long-term health effects of Gulf War exposures, and on identification of
biomarkers for Gulf War illness.1659 Also for the first time, the announcement specified that proposals
whose principle focus was psychological stress or psychiatric disorders would not be funded. Forty-four
proposals were submitted in response to the RFP and again reviewed by a special panel of scientists with
expertise relevant to Gulf War illness, resulting in the selection of 12 new projects for funding.846
The Committee commends VA ORD for improvements in the 2004 and 2005 Gulf War funding
announcements. The Committee also applauds ORD’s efforts to include scientists with expertise
specifically relevant to Gulf War illness and effects of Gulf War exposures in the scientific review
process. VA’s expanded research effort dedicated to Gulf War illness and effects of Gulf War exposures,
evident in 2005 and 2006, consisted largely of projects funded under the 2004 and 2005 funding
announcements.
The Department of Veterans Affairs Office of Research and Development also informed the Committee
in December, 2005, that VA would develop and fund a Gulf War brain tissue bank and DNA
biorepository. The Gulf War Biorepository Trust would be managed by VA’s Massachusetts Veterans
Epidemiology Research and Information Center (MAVERIC) in Boston, which received nearly $1
million in funding for the project in early FY2006. The Committee had recommended, in 2004, that VA
develop a Gulf War brain tissue bank.1268 It considered this an important initiative to allow study of brain
tissues in deceased veterans whose health may have been affected by exposures and events of the Gulf
War.
Preliminary plans for establishing the Gulf War Biorepository Trust were presented to the Committee in
November, 2006.441,1225 The Committee was impressed by the level of commitment and professionalism
brought to the effort by the tissue bank management team. Committee members were concerned,
however, to learn that all tissue and DNA samples to be collected for the planned “Gulf War”
biorepository would come from the general population of veterans enrolled in VA’s ALS Registry. In
2006, this included approximately 1,500 veterans with ALS in the VA system—deployed and
nondeployed veterans of all ages and eras, about 50 of whom had served in the 1991 Gulf War. As a
result, VA’s “Gulf War” biorepository, as currently designed, will actually be an ALS biorepository.
Although program administrators indicated their interest in expanding the effort to include tissues from
Gulf War veterans with other conditions, including Gulf War illness, no such project has yet been
developed or funded. As the Committee has previously pointed out, brain tissues of symptomatic Gulf
War veterans could be a particularly valuable resource for determining the specific areas and types of
neuropathology affecting veterans with Gulf War illness.
The Department of Veterans Affairs has not issued additional funding announcements focused on the
health of Gulf War veterans since 2005. However, a significantly revised approach to sponsoring Gulf
War research at VA occurred in 2006. The changes have the potential to address ongoing concerns
regarding integration and management of a coordinated, multidisciplinary Gulf War research effort.
Focus of VA Gulf War research: 2003 – 2006. Table 3 identifies funding totals for projects
identified as VA-sponsored Gulf War research in interagency reports to Congress from 2003 through
2006. Yearly amounts are further categorized according to the focus of the funded studies, as identified
by the Committee. Overall, total funding for VA’s Gulf War research portfolio increased from $4.6
million in 2003 to $12.9 million in 2006.
A number of VA research projects of note were funded during this period. These include the previouslydescribed Gulf War Biorepository Trust, neuroimaging projects at the Boston and San Francisco VAMCs,
studies of immune function in ill Gulf War veterans at the Miami VAMC and hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal function in Gulf War veterans at the Bronx VAMC. Three studies were funded to evaluate
treatments for ill Gulf War veterans. These included a trial of continuous positive airway pressure

296  Federal Research on Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

Table 3. Department of Veterans Affairs Gulf War Research: 2003-2006
Funding Levels and Focus of Studies

Focus of VA Gulf War Research Studies†
Gulf War illness, effects of Gulf War exposures
Other health problems related to Gulf War service

2003
Funding*

2004
Funding*

2005
Funding*

2006
Funding*

(% of 2003 funds) (% of 2004 funds) (% of 2005 funds) (% of 2006 funds)

$ 1,101,310
(24%)
$

72,700
(2%)

$ 1,107,405
(14%)

$2,726,875
(29%)

$3,729,011
(29%)

(0%)

$ 84,468
(1%)

$ 336,582
(3%)

ALS research

$ 458,829
(10%)

$ 754,537
(10%)

$3,309,588
(35%)

$5,039,163
(39%)

Psychological stress, psychiatric illness

$ 2,379,814
(51%)

$ 3,239,545
(42%)

$1,063,884
(11%)

$1,235,409
(10%)

Peripheral or no clear relevance to Gulf War service

$ 633,587
(14%)

$ 2,570.284
(34%)

$ 2,299,864
(24%)

$ 2,601,898
(20%)

Total VA Gulf War Research Funding, by Year*

$ 4,646,510
(100%)

$ 7,671,771
(100%)

$ 9,484,679
(100%)

$12,942,066
(100%)

*Direct costs, as reported in Deployment Health Working Group Annual Report to Congress for each year336-339
†Research focus of individual projects categorized by Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses

(CPAP) treatment for dysregulated sleep in ill Gulf War veterans, antibiotic therapy for irritable bowel
syndrome in Gulf War veterans, and a telemedicine trial of cognitive behavioral therapy for veterans with
Gulf War illness. Despite VA pledges in 2004 and 2005 to fund a research center devoted to evaluation
of treatments for Gulf War illness, no such treatment research center was funded during this
period.473,846,1648
Overall, the profile of studies included in VA’s Gulf War research portfolio differed markedly between
2003 and 2006, as detailed in Table 3. This was due, in part, to completion of previously-funded projects
and addition of new studies funded in connection with VA’s 2004 and 2005 Gulf War research
solicitations. But the most significant changes during this period were the result of administrative
decisions made by VA ORD that determined which studies were identified as “Gulf War research” in a
given year. Among the most prominent changes in VA’s Gulf War research portfolio was the reduced
level of funding for studies focused on stress and psychiatric disorders—from 51 percent of total funds in
2003 to just 10 percent in 2006. In 2003-2004, the single project that received the most funding in VA’s
Gulf War research portfolio was the clinical trial of behavioral therapy for PTSD in women. That project
received $3.3 million in 2003-2004, but no additional VA Gulf War research funding in 2005 and 2006.339
During the same period, both previously funded and recently approved ALS studies were newly identified
as “Gulf War Research” by VA ORD. As a result, the amount allocated for ALS research in VA’s Gulf
War portfolio increased more then 10-fold, from less than $500,000 in 2003 to over $5 million in 2006.
This had a dramatic impact on the total level of funding and overall profile of VA’s Gulf War research
portfolio. The largest single recipient of VA Gulf War research funding in 2005 and 2006 was VA’s
National ALS Research consortium, funded at nearly $2 million over the two years. The second largest
allocation was for VA’s National Registry of Veterans with ALS, which received $1.7 million in 20052006. Overall, 35-39 percent of total funding identified as “Gulf War research” in 2005 and 2006 was for
ALS research. This supported 14 projects, only four of which included any Gulf War veterans or any
element related to Gulf War service. And those four projects did not focus specifically on ALS in

Gulf War Research at the Department of Veterans Affairs  297

connection with the Gulf War. They include, for example, VA’s National ALS Registry program, which
now includes over 2,000 veterans with ALS, only 60 of whom served in the Gulf War.
Research to better understand the causes of ALS and identify effective treatments is extremely important.
This fatal condition has been found to affect Gulf War veterans at twice the rate of nondeployed era
veterans.636 But relatively few Gulf War veterans have ALS, and they represent only a small fraction of
veterans in the VA system with ALS. The causes of ALS in Gulf War veterans cannot be presumed to be
the same as those for inherited forms of ALS or age-associated ALS seen in the larger veteran population.
In general, identifying the millions of dollars spent for all types of ALS research at VA as “Gulf War”
research is misleading, and has provided an inflated impression of the amount of funding provided for
research on the health of Gulf War veterans.
In recent years, VA also continued to identify other types of studies as “Gulf War research” that were not
related to the health of Gulf War veterans, or only peripherally so. Examples include animal research
evaluating effects of vaccines not used in the Gulf War, research on developmental factors in sensitivity
to alcohol withdrawal, basic science research on proteins that may regulate progression of astrocytomas,
genetic differences related to normal circadian sleep variation in mice strains, and preclinical studies that
may provide insights concerning vaccine prevention of leishmaniasis.339 Research questions addressed by
such studies, while perhaps worthwhile, had no direct bearing on understanding the nature, causes, or
treatments of health problems affecting veterans of the 1991 Gulf War. Studies of this type have
constituted up to 34 percent of VA’s Gulf War portfolio in recent years, and accounted for 20 percent of
VA’s Gulf War research expenditures in 2006.
The Committee was pleased to note the increase in total funding allocated in 2005 and 2006 for studies
focused on Gulf War illness and effects of Gulf War exposures. Improving the health of Gulf War
veterans requires that these Gulf War-specific areas be given high priority, since they are most relevant to
the largest number of ill veterans. It was troubling, however, that the overall percentage of VA Gulf War
research funding allocated to these areas remained relatively unchanged during this period. That is, from
2003 through 2006, just 24-29 percent of VA’s Gulf War funding supported studies related to Gulf War
illness and effects of Gulf War exposures. An additional three percent or less each year was for studies
related to other Gulf War-specific health concerns, such as studies to identify cancer and mortality rates in
Gulf War veterans. So as recently as 2006, a total of just 32 percent of VA’s “Gulf War Research”
funding was used for studies specifically focused on the health of Gulf War veterans. As the proportion
of projects related to stress and psychiatric conditions in the portfolio decreased after 2003, those studies
were largely replaced by ALS projects.
Recent VA Gulf War research program developments. The Committee’s 2004 report
recommended that Congress add an additional $15 million to VA’s research budget specifically for Gulf
War research. The Committee also recommended that VA work with other federal agencies to develop a
comprehensive plan to address Gulf War illness. This would include a strategic VA research program
managed to address priority research questions related to the health of Gulf War veterans.
In 2006, Congress added $19 million to VA’s requested research budget, and specifically directed that at
least $15 million be used annually to support a center of excellence for Gulf War illness research.1685 The
new center was to be a joint collaboration between VA and the University of Texas Southwestern
(UTSW) Medical School in Dallas. Since 1995, UTSW investigators have conducted an extensive Gulf
War research program, under the direction of Dr. Robert Haley. This program produced a number of the
neuroimaging results described in Section 3 of the present report, as well as other important findings
related to the health of Gulf War veterans.
In response to the 2006 Congressional directive, VA has worked with UTSW to develop the “Gulf War
Illness and Chemical Exposure Research Program” at UTSW. A memorandum of understanding between

298  Federal Research on Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

VA and UTSW to establish the center was signed in 2006.1645 In 2007, VA’s Gulf War research funding
included $15 million for the UTSW research program, and multiple research proposals have been
approved for funding. The Committee has reviewed information on the overall scope of the program and
its major elements, studies underway in the program’s initial year, and plans for additional research.559,560
In April of 2008, it provided its initial findings and recommendations on the UTSW program to the
Secretary.1272
The UTSW program will utilize a multidisciplinary approach focused on understanding the biological
underpinnings of Gulf War illness and its association with hazardous exposures during the Gulf War. It is
organized around four major, interrelated initiatives: (1) a national epidemiologic survey of Gulf War-era
veterans, (2) a serum and DNA repository, (3) clinical studies to compare sick and healthy Gulf War
veterans on a variety of objective measures, and (4) animal research to investigate biological effects of
Gulf War-related exposures. The initial project is an epidemiologic study of a national, random sample of
Gulf War-era veterans. Blood and DNA samples will be collected from survey participants and used to
study specific hypotheses concerning biological differences between sick and healthy veterans. A smaller
number of veterans will be brought to the UTSW Medical Center for clinical evaluation, using an
extensive battery of neuroimaging, laboratory, and physiological tests. Parallel to the human studies,
animal experiments are planned to evaluate molecular, cellular, and behavioral effects of exposures
associated with Gulf War deployment.
The UTSW program is the first comprehensive Gulf War research center of its type funded by the federal
government and is focused on issues long-identified by the Committee as having high priority. The
Committee is enthusiastic about the potential for a multidisciplinary, coordinated research effort to
achieve results not obtainable from federal Gulf War research programs of the past. It has offered
recommendations concerning the overall scope of research addressed by the program, as well as more
specific recommendations related to the design and conduct of program elements and individual
studies.1272 As the present report is being prepared, only the epidemiologic survey is underway, with
clinical studies and toxicological research to follow. As the program moves forward, the Committee will
continue to review the objectives, progress, and results of the UTSW research in detail, as it has reviewed
previous VA-sponsored Gulf War research programs.
With the development and funding of the UTSW Gulf War research program in 2007, VA’s Office of
Research and Development substantially reorganized the remainder of the VA Gulf War research
portfolio. Many of the ALS research projects included in the portfolio in 2005 and 2006, as well as other
projects, were reassigned and no longer identified as “Gulf War research.” In the Deployment Health
Working Group’s 2007 report to Congress on Gulf War research, VA reported total 2007 expenditures of
nearly $22 million dollars for Gulf War research: $15 million for the UTSW program, and nearly $7
million for additional research projects administered directly by VA ORD.340 Most of the additional
funding was for VA projects that had been funded in previous years, including the Gulf War/ALS tissue
bank at the Boston VAMC (funded at $1 million in 2007), and the large neuroimaging project at the San
Francisco VAMC (funded at $744,000 in 2007). Of the $7 million funding for projects administered
directly by VA in FY2007, 21 percent was for ALS research, seven percent for stress-related research,
and eight percent for projects that were of peripheral or no relevance to Gulf War veterans. The
remaining 64 percent of funding supported projects that addressed research questions related to Gulf War
illness, effects of Gulf War exposures, or other health issues specific to the health of Gulf War veterans.
The Committee commends recent changes in the composition of VA’s Gulf War research portfolio, and in
how Gulf War research funding is reported to Congress. Overall, VA-reported funding for Gulf War
research in 2007 more accurately reflected expenditures for research that was related to the health of Gulf
War veterans than had previously been the case. This shift was the result of two changes: (1) allocation
of $15 million in 2007 for the Congressionally-mandated UTSW Gulf War research program, and (2)
VA’s withdrawal of many ALS studies and other projects unrelated to the health of Gulf War veterans

Gulf War Research at the Department of Veterans Affairs  299

from the portfolio of studies identified as “Gulf War research” in agency reports to Congress. The
Committee encourages VA to continue support for the multidisciplinary Gulf War research program at
UTSW. It is also important that additional VA Gulf War research projects be supported in a strategic way
that addresses priority issues identified in this report, as part of a coordinated federal Gulf War research
effort.
Gulf War Research at the Department of Defense
The U.S. Department of Defense historically provided the largest share of funding for federal Gulf War
research.335,1268 This has changed markedly in recent years, with DOD Gulf War research funding
declining from about $30 million in direct costs in 1997, to less than $4 million in 2007. Interagency
annual reports from 2003 through 2006 indicated that just three new Gulf War projects were funded by
DOD in 2003, and no new studies funded between 2004 and 2006.336-339
Focus of DOD Gulf War research: 2003 – 2006. As shown in Table 4, most research funded by
DOD in 2003 and 2004 related to Gulf War illness and biological effects of Gulf War exposures. Several
studies also focused on other Gulf War-related health issues, including rates of hospitalization and motor
vehicle accidents in Gulf War veterans. Between 2004 and 2006, however, the proportion of DOD “Gulf
War research” projects that had little or no direct relevance to the health of Gulf War veterans increased
dramatically.
The largest single allocation of DOD funding between 2003 and 2006 was $9.7 million provided to the
Naval Health Research Center for the Millenium Cohort Study. As previously described, this is an
ongoing longitudinal study of a large cohort of military personnel serving during and after the year 2000.
Other major DOD allocations during this period included $7.6 million to the University of Michigan for
studies of multisymptom illness, $4.9 million to Intracellular Therapies, Inc., for research on molecular
signaling pathways activated by nerve agents, and $3.9 million provided to the University of Texas
Southwestern for neuroimaging research.336-339
By 2006, the DOD Gulf War research portfolio included only three studies. Nearly all funding allocated
for “Gulf War” research—93 percent—was for research that had little direct relevance to the health of
Gulf War veterans. Department of Defense studies funded between 2004 and 2006, in large part, focused
on military personnel who served after Desert Storm. Although identified as “Gulf War Research” in
interagency reports to Congress, these projects would more accurately be considered research related to
“Deployment Health,” a term used by federal agencies to refer to health issues stemming from military
deployment in general, as opposed to issues associated with any specific war or deployment.
The funding levels and studies summarized in Table 4 reflect information provided by DOD in annual
reports to Congress from 2003 through 2006. In 2006, however, DOD retroactively added additional
studies that were funded in 2001, 2003, and 2005 to Gulf War research portfolios for those years. 339
These included two ALS studies, funded at over $2 million, and two PTSD treatment studies, also totaling
about $2 million. Had these additional studies been included in annual reports to Congress for 2003 and
2005, total funding levels for those years would appear greater than those indicated in Table 4, and the
profile of the DOD Gulf War research portfolio would have reflected substantial funding for studies
focused on ALS and psychiatric disorders.
Recent program developments in DOD Gulf War research. Recognizing the decline in DOD’s
support for Gulf War research after 2002, Congress appropriated $5 million for new DOD Gulf War
research in FY2006. Congressional language specifically directed that the funds be used for research that
provided insights into biological mechanisms that underlie Gulf War illness and for studies to evaluate
promising treatments for Gulf War illness.586,842

300  Federal Research on Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

Table 4. Department of Defense Gulf War Research: 2003—2006
Funding Levels and Focus of Studies

Focus of DOD Gulf War Research Studies†

2003
Funding*

2004
Funding*

2005
Funding*

2006
Funding*

(% of 2003 funds) (% of 2004 funds) (% of 2005 funds) (% of 2006 funds)

Gulf War illness, effects of Gulf War exposures

$ 7,230,104
(58%)

$ 11,272,424
(73%)

$2,694,894
(44%)

$ 326,570
(7%)

Other health problems related to Gulf War service

$ 2,031,950
(16%)

$ 1,750,000
(11%)

(0%)

(0%)

Peripheral or no clear relevance to Gulf War service

$ 3,134,072
(26%)

$ 2,318,687
(15%)

$ 3,484,372
(56%)

$ 4,393,452
(93%)

Total DOD Gulf War Research Funding, by Year*

$ 12,396,126
(100%)

$ 15,341,111
(100%)

$ 6,179.266
(100%)

$4,720,022
(100%)

*Direct costs, as reported in Deployment Health Working Group Annual Report to Congress for each year 336-339
†Research focus of individual projects categorized by Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses

In previous years, Gulf War research at DOD was managed by the Military Operational Medicine
Research Program in the U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command (USAMRMC). Funding
allocated in FY2006, however, was directed to USAMRMC’s Office of Congressionally Directed
Medical Research Programs (CDMRP). This multifaceted program was established in 1993 to manage
research conducted in areas of special Congressional and public interest.(CDMRP) CDMRP programs
emphasize innovative research studies of high scientific merit that have the potential for providing
breakthroughs in understanding and treating diseases and protecting the health of military personnel.
The CDMRP issued a funding announcement for its newly-established Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses
Research Program in October, 2006.1634 The solicitation identified two funding priorities: (1) studies to
identify and evaluate treatments for Gulf War illness, and (2) studies to identify objective measures that
distinguish ill from healthy veterans. A total of 80 letters of intent and preproposals were submitted to
CDMRP in response to the announcement. Full proposals were invited for 34 of the projects, nine of
which were ultimately funded in 2007.586 The selection process involved scientific merit review of
proposals and an additional review to evaluate the projects’ relevance to identified research priorities.
Both stages of the review process included Gulf War veterans with Gulf War illness.
With the initial $5 million funding provided to CDMRP in the first year of the new Gulf War research
program, three of the nine funded studies focused on treatments for Gulf War illness, two focused on
objective biological measures that distinguish ill from healthy veterans, and three projects included both
treatment and biomarker components.737 This represents a clear departure from previous federal Gulf
War research programs. The Committee commends the results-oriented direction and management of the
program, now referred to as the Gulf War Illness Research Program (GWIRP). The GWIRP’s success,
with its initial $5 million allocation, in attracting and funding research studies focused on treatments and
objective biological measures for Gulf War illness is impressive, especially in comparison to the very
small number of studies funded in these areas during the entire previous history of federal Gulf War
research.
The CDMRP GWIRP program has clearly addressed Congressional directives and has also funded Gulf
War studies in areas given highest priority by the Committee, that is, identification of treatments and
objective biological markers for Gulf War illness. The program’s support of smaller treatment studies to
identify suitable candidates for larger clinical trials is also compatible with Committee recommendations.
In its 2004 report, the Committee called for lower-cost studies to provide preliminary data on currently

Gulf War Research at the Department of Defense  301

available, potentially promising treatments before allocating millions of dollars for large multi-center
clinical trials, as had previously been done by VA and DOD.1268
The Committee also applauds CDMRP’s inclusion of veterans with Gulf War illness, and scientists with
expertise in Gulf War illness, in reviewing research proposals. It is also of great importance that CDMRP
funding for Gulf War research is available to all investigators from academic and government institutions,
and can enlist the best ideas from the most qualified scientists, wherever they are found. In contrast, VA
research funding can only be provided to VA researchers, imposing significant restrictions on the
expertise brought to bear on Gulf War research issues and the types of studies done. The Committee was
favorably impressed, overall, with the general approach used by CDMRP, including its emphasis on
innovative studies that have the potential to yield clinically useful results in the near term.
Based on CDMRP’s initial success in attracting substantial scientific interest and its support of Gulf War
research projects in areas of highest priority, Congress allocated $10 million for the CDMRP Gulf War
research program in FY2008. The GWIRP research solicitation, issued in May, 2008, attracted 113
preproposals. The announcement again emphasized the program’s support of research focused on
treatment, diagnosis, and understanding of Gulf War illness, with highest priority given to identification
of treatments. 737 Submitted proposals will be reviewed in late 2008, and approved studies will receive
funding in 2009.737 The Committee commends the early successes of the CDMRP program, and will
continue to monitor the progress and productivity of the program, as it has reviewed previous federal Gulf
War research programs.
A limited number of additional projects, outside the CDMRP Gulf War research program, continued to be
identified by DOD as “Gulf War research” in the 2007 interagency report to Congress. Funding
continued to reflect trends of recent years. Ninety-five percent of the $3.4 million funding identified by
DOD as “Gulf War Research” in FY2007 was allocated for the Millenium Cohort Study which, as
previously described, represents “Deployment Health” research that has little relevance to the health of
veterans of the 1990-1991 Gulf War.340

Table 5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Gulf War Research: 2003—2006
Funding Levels and Focus of Studies

Focus of CDC Gulf War Research Studies†

2003
Funding*

2004
Funding*

2005
Funding*

2006
Funding*

(% of 2003 funds) (% of 2004 funds) (% of 2005 funds) (% of 2006 funds)

(0%)

(0%)

(0%)

(0%)

$ 164,291
(17%)

(0%)

(0%)

(0%)

(0%)

$ 461,951
(100%)

$ 462,071
(100%)

$ 466,000
(100%)

Peripheral or no clear relevance to Gulf War service

$ 799,814
(83%)

(0%)

(0%)

(0%)

Total CDC Gulf War Research Funding, by Year*

$ 964,105
(100%)

$ 461,951
(100%)

$ 462,071
(100%)

$ 466,000
(100%)

Gulf War illness, effects of Gulf War exposures
Other health problems related to Gulf War service
ALS research

*Direct costs, as reported in Deployment Health Working Group Annual Report to Congress for each year336-339
†Research focus of individual projects categorized by Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesse

302  Federal Research on Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

Gulf War Research at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has, for many years, participated as a
cooperating agency in the ongoing federal effort to address health consequences of the 1991 Gulf War.
But CDC has consistently funded only a small percentage of federal Gulf War research. In recent years,
Gulf War research funding at CDC has declined from nearly $1 million in 2003 to about half that amount
in 2006, as shown in Table 5.336-339
None of the CDC studies funded since 2003 have specifically addressed questions related to Gulf War
illness or the effects of Gulf War exposures. One study funded in 2003 addressed another important Gulf
War health issue, however, evaluating cancer rates in Gulf War veterans. Two additional studies funded
in 2003 had little relevance to the health of 1991 Gulf War veterans. Both involved identification of
strategies to improve health risk communications related to military deployments. In addition, CDC has
funded one ALS research project between 2004 and 2007, which is evaluating genetic and environmental
risk factors among veterans enrolled in VA’s ALS Registry. Although the $1.8 million funding provided
for the project over this period has been identified as “Gulf War Research” in the Deployment Health
Working Group’s reports to Congress, the study includes relatively few Gulf War veterans and does not
address scientific questions specific to Gulf War service.339

Additional VA Programs Relevant to Gulf War Research
Years ago, I left the VA healthcare system, after being prescribed a powerful medication by
VA ‘Obecalp’—a medication to be used with extreme caution. However, it did not work very
well. Spelled backward, it is simply ‘Placebo.’ To answer your questions [before you ask], I
have never participated in a study, much less one at the VA. After leaving the VA and
seeking private medical care, I found a good doctor and neurologist who managed to control
my declining health.
… Recently, we sold our home in Florida and moved back to our home state of Kentucky, at
which time I returned to the VA for my health care. My wife and I felt, after everything that had
been done over the years, that surely the VA healthcare system has improved for Gulf War
veterans. But to my surprise, returning to VA was like going back in time. I was once again
told there is nothing wrong with Gulf War veterans. Even worse, the doctor I saw on my last
visit even stated that she cannot believe veterans receive compensation for Gulf War
illnesses, because there is nothing really wrong with them that is related to their service.
… I cannot believe, after all the work that has been done on this issue, that this is still the
normal response from VA doctors.
--Gulf War veteran, 2005 Congressional Testimony1809

The Committee is charged with reviewing research studies and programs related to the health of Gulf War
veterans. There are additional programs and services provided by VA that, although not specifically
research programs, are connected to and affected by scientific research on the health of Gulf War
veterans. These include VA programs that provide information to healthcare providers caring for Gulf
War veterans, programs that provide clinical evaluations of Gulf War veterans, and programs that provide
disability benefits to ill veterans.
Veterans with Gulf War illness commonly inform the Committee in public testimony and in private that
their VA healthcare providers have little to offer for their conditions, do not take their illness seriously, or
believe their symptoms to be psychological. Veterans also question why their providers seem not to
know about the types of scientific research discussed in Committee meetings and reports. There are no

Additional VA Programs Relevant to Gulf War Research 303

recent data that characterize VA healthcare providers’ attitudes about Gulf War illness or their familiarity
with Gulf War research. However, the Committee has reviewed sources of research information provided
to VA healthcare providers, and found them to be both selective and out-of-date. These include
continuing education materials provided to VA physicians through the Veterans Health Initiative (VHI),
clinical practice guidelines provided for chronic multisymptom illness, as well as other VA documents
and public statements made by VA officials. Information from these sources commonly ignores or
minimizes Gulf War illness and the wide-ranging scientific evidence that it is not a psychiatric condition
and that it affects a substantial number of veterans. This pattern of denying or minimizing the problem of
Gulf War illness is exemplified by the following paragraphs from physician education materials currently
in use at VA:
Most Gulf War veterans who come to VA for health care or to participate in the VA health
registry receive conventional diagnoses and treatments. Most have health problems similar to
those experienced by veterans of other eras. However, some veterans report chronic
multisymptom illnesses that often are difficult to diagnose. Thus, most of the symptoms
reported by veterans in VA registry examinations were found to be caused by conventional
illnesses.
… Considerable progress has been made in evaluating and treating illnesses among Gulf War
veterans and in determining the prevalence of symptoms. Most Gulf War veterans are healthy
today and have successfully readjusted to post-war life, or they have diagnosable health
problems. VA has been able to respond to the complexity of veterans’ health problems; most
are readily diagnosed and effective treatments are available.
--VA Continuing Medical Education Program1649

Information on Gulf War research provided to VA clinicians. The Veterans Health Initiative,
VA’s continuing medical education program, provides information on the health of Gulf War veterans to
VA clinicians. The independent study course, A Guide to Gulf War Veterans’ Health, was first prepared
in 1997 by VA’s Employee Education System in cooperation with VA’s Office of Public Health and
Environmental Hazards.1649 The currently-used guide was revised in 2001 and released in March 2002. It
provides general information from VA’s Gulf War Registry and from selected types of Gulf War
epidemiologic research available at that time, most prominently information on symptoms,
hospitalizations, and mortality rates. It also provides guidelines for clinical risk communications, to assist
clinicians in explaining causality information to veterans with Gulf War illness, as demonstrated by the
following excerpts:
Frequently, the veteran seems to overestimate or overvalue the apparently low chance that a
rare, improbable cause (e.g., in theater vaccinations or biological weapons exposures) is
responsible for symptoms than more ordinary and likely causes (e.g. early degenerative joint
disease in an airborne infantry soldier).
… discussing chronic illness with a Gulf War veteran or a woman with silicone breast
implants is a different matter from discussing it with the average patient. Of course, this is
because the Gulf War and silicone implants have been the focus of intense scientific,
governmental and media scrutiny as possible sources of illness.
--VA Continuing Medical Education Program1649

The course provides no information on many of the most significant research findings related to the health
of Gulf War veterans. That is, VA physicians trained using the Veterans’ Health Initiative course are not
informed about: (1) epidemiologic research showing high rates of multisymptom illness in Gulf War
veterans, significant associations between Gulf War illness and hazardous exposures during the Gulf War,
and elevated rates of ALS in Gulf War veterans, (2) clinical findings of objective indicators of

304  Federal Research on Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

neurological alterations and other biological abnormalities in ill veterans, or (3) toxicological studies
showing persistent neurological effects of low-level Gulf War-related exposures, and synergistic effects
of combined exposures. In short, Gulf War research information provided to VA clinicians through the
Veterans Health Initiative is unacceptably limited and out-of-date.
Information provided to VA clinicians on clinical management of Gulf War illness. As
previously described, VA and DOD commissioned expert panels to develop two sets of clinical practice
guidelines related to the health of Gulf War veterans. These guidelines, finalized in 2001, were informed
by available scientific research and by the clinical experience of panel members. One set of guidelines
provides information to assist clinicians in evaluating patients with “post-deployment health concerns”
but does not provide specific treatment recommendations.1656
The second set of practice guidelines provides information on evaluation and management of veterans
with chronic unexplained illness, specifically symptoms of chronic pain and fatigue.1656 Information
provided on recommended treatments is based on the limited number of clinical trials published by 2001
that evaluated therapies for fibromyalgia and chronic fatigue syndrome. Information on other potentially
useful treatments is also provided, based on more preliminary research findings and the clinical
experience of panel members. The guidelines emphasize the use of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT),
graded exercise, and antidepressant medications. Although exercise and CBT have been shown to
provide improvements for fibromyalgia and chronic fatigue syndrome patients, studies have found them
to be less helpful for ill Gulf War veterans.226,354,406 The clinical practice guidelines are also seriously
outdated in terms of the many studies of treatments for multisymptom conditions published since 2001,
particularly treatments for fibromyalgia.
VA clinical programs relevant to Gulf War health research. VA has long maintained a national
Gulf War Registry that provides clinical evaluations to Gulf War veterans at no cost and serves, for some
veterans, as a gateway to other VA healthcare and benefits programs. Participating veterans complete
detailed questionnaires and are given standardized medical examinations.1654 Although not designed to
provide scientific research information, the registry relates to the federal Gulf War research effort in a
number of ways. Summary data from the registry are reported in medical journals and frequently cited in
government reports and testimony. In addition, VA’s Gulf War Registry is sometimes used as a resource
to identify veterans for Gulf War research projects. The Committee was informed by VA’s Office of
Environmental Hazards that, as of November 1, 2007, a total of 102,215 veterans of the 1990-1991 Gulf
War had enrolled in VA’s Gulf War Registry. Figures from recent years indicate that additional Gulf War
veterans have continued to come forward with health concerns, even 17 years after Desert Storm.
According to VA’s Office of Environmental Hazards, 3400-4400 Gulf War veterans have received VA
Gulf War Registry exams in each of the last three years.
The Department of Veterans Affairs also maintains a national referral program that provides more indepth clinical evaluations at specialty clinics for veterans with difficult-to-diagnose conditions.1653 The
War-Related Illness and Injury Study Centers (WRIISCs) were established in 2001 and initially located at
VA Medical Centers in Washington, D.C., and East Orange, New Jersey.1642 A third WRIISC was
recently established in Palo Alto, California.1657 Multidisciplinary clinical evaluations at the WRIISCs
require between two and five days and include detailed medical and psychological evaluations, as well as
other types of specialty testing, as indicated for individual patients. This might include environmental
exposure assessments, neurological testing, balance testing, neuropsychological assessments, or other
evaluations. The program is provided for veterans who served in a theater of combat operations and are
affected by undiagnosed or difficult-to-diagnose conditions. Veterans are referred by their local VA
clinicians, and all medical services, travel, and local accommodations are provided at no cost to the
veteran.1657

Additional VA Programs Relevant to Gulf War Research 305

The WRIISCs were established both to provide multidisciplinary clinical evaluations for ill veterans, and
as research centers.1653 Investigators based at the Washington and New Jersey WRIISCs have conducted
dozens of studies on diverse topics related to Gulf War illness and other Gulf War health issues.
Relatively few veterans, however, have participated in the WRIISC clinical evaluation programs. A
published report indicated that, in their first two years of operation, the New Jersey and Washington
WRIISCs combined had evaluated a total of 53 combat veterans with difficult-to-diagnose conditions,
only 42 of whom had served in the Persian Gulf War.907 Figures provided to the Committee by VA’s
Office of Environmental Hazards indicate that a total of 168 Gulf War veterans were evaluated at the two
WRIISCS between 2001 and 2007.
VA disability benefits in relation to Gulf War research. The Department of Veterans Affairs
provides financial compensation to veterans of all eras who have disabling health problems in connection
with their military service. Disability compensation programs are administered by the Veterans Benefits
Administration (VBA) within VA. Department of Veterans Affairs regulations identify specific
requirements that must be met in order for veterans of a particular era or veterans with certain health
problems to receive disability benefits. There are special provisions, for example, that allow Gulf War
veterans disabled by chronic symptoms that are not explained by a specific diagnosis to receive disability
compensation for “undiagnosed illnesses.”1643 Although VBA does not sponsor scientific research
studies, decisions and regulations concerning disability benefits rely on scientific research.
As of February, 2008, VBA’s Gulf War Veterans Information System (GWVIS) reported that 33 percent
of the 631,477 service members who separated from military service after serving in the 1991 Gulf War
had filed disability claims and were found by VBA to have a service-connected disability. Among
personnel potentially exposed to low-level nerve agents in relation to the Khamisiyah demolitions in
March of 1991, 39 percent have a service-connected disability.1650 By comparison, 29 percent of military
personnel who deployed to Southwest Asia after 1991, and are now separated from service, have a
service-connected disability. Although crude figures provided for different groups in the GWVIS reports
cannot be directly compared without proper adjustments, available figures do suggest that veterans of the
1990-1991 Gulf War have a high rate of service-connected disabilities, especially considering the brevity
of the 1991 Gulf War and the low rate of injuries during the war.1607,1633
It is also important to note that very few Gulf War veterans have applied for disability compensation for
“undiagnosed illness.” As of February, 2008, just two percent of Gulf War veterans had filed disability
claims for undiagnosed illness and only 0.5 percent had been service-connected for undiagnosed
illness.1650 The very low number of claims for Gulf War-related undiagnosed illness is somewhat
unexpected, given the much larger number of veterans identified with multisymptom illness in research
studies. The explanation for this is not known, but may relate to several factors. VBA statistics suggest
that undiagnosed illness claims have been difficult for veterans, veterans service officers, and VA to
successfully execute. Eighty-seven percent of all disability claims filed by veterans who served since
1990 have been granted service-connection by VBA. In sharp contrast, only 26 percent of claims filed for
undiagnosed illness have been granted service-connection.1650 This may explain, in part, why few
veterans, or veterans’ service officers, have filed this type of claim. In any case, the very small number of
veterans who have applied for disability benefits for undiagnosed illness belies inferences made that Gulf
War veterans might be inclined to report difficult-to-diagnose symptoms for purposes of financial
gain.379,466
As described in an earlier section of this report, Congress directed VA, in 1998, to commission the
Institute of Medicine (IOM) to conduct comprehensive scientific reviews to assist the Secretary in making
decisions about service-connected disability compensation for Gulf War veterans in relation to Gulf War
service and Gulf War exposures. Congress specified that VA direct IOM to: (1) identify diagnosed and
undiagnosed conditions that affect Gulf War veterans at excess rates, and (2) evaluate scientific evidence
from human and animal studies concerning associations between those conditions and a detailed list of

306  Federal Research on Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

Gulf War exposures.1242,1243 As previously detailed, the resulting Gulf War and Health series of reports
have not fulfilled the purpose directed by Congress. As commissioned by VA, these reviews have either
excluded, or only superficially considered, key areas of research essential for understanding associations
between Gulf War illness and hazardous exposures in the Gulf War. Although intended by Congress to
provide support to the VA Secretary in making decisions about Gulf War-related disability benefits, the
Gulf War and Health reports have provided little information relevant to the most prominent Gulf War
health and disability issues. This includes Gulf War illness and ALS, for which no conclusions related to
Gulf War-related exposures have been provided.685,686 In the present report, the Committee has
recommended that the IOM Gulf War reviews be redone to reflect the purpose and content directed by
Congress.
In 2001, former VA Secretary Principi announced that VA would provide service-connected disability
compensation to all Gulf War veterans who had been identified at that time with a diagnosis of ALS.1639
The decision was based on emerging findings from epidemiologic research indicating that Gulf War
veterans had a significantly higher rate of ALS than their nondeployed counterparts. However, VBA did
not establish a regulation at that time that provided presumptive service-connection for all Gulf War
veterans with ALS. New claims related to ALS in Gulf War veterans continued to be adjudicated on a
case-by-case basis.1028,1639 This changed in September, 2008, when VA Secretary James Peake announced
that all U.S. veterans, of all eras, would be given presumptive service connection for ALS.1647 The
decision was based, primarily, on an IOM 2006 report on ALS, which concluded that there was limited,
suggestive evidence supporting an association between military service, overall, and development of
ALS.685
In summary, multiple issues have been raised concerning VA programs that are not specifically focused
on research, but are closely linked to scientific research on the health of Gulf War veterans. These
include programs that provide research information to VA clinicians, programs that provide clinical
assessments of ill Gulf War veterans, and programs that provide benefits to disabled Gulf War veterans.
In 2007, the Committee formally recommended that VA update and improve information on Gulf War
research provided to VA clinicians.1271 This included both the Veterans’ Health Initiative continuing
education program on the health of Gulf War veterans, and the VA/DOD Clinical Practice Guidelines for
Unexplained Symptoms.
The Committee also recommended that the Secretary establish a separate advisory committee to consider
issues related to clinical care and benefits for Gulf War veterans.1271 In April 2008, Secretary Peake
appointed a new public advisory panel, the Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans, and charged it
with an assessment of the full spectrum of VA healthcare and benefits issues that affect veterans who
served in the 1990-1991 Gulf War.1646 The Committee welcomes this development and looks forward to
working cooperatively with the new panel.
Summary. Federal research on Gulf War illness and the health of Gulf War veterans.
Since 1994, the federal government has reported spending hundreds of millions of dollars for projects
identified as Gulf War research, but prominent shortcomings have slowed federal progress in addressing
Gulf War-related health issues. Studies identified as federally-sponsored “Gulf War research” have often
been unrelated, or only marginally related, to the health of Gulf War veterans. In addition, a substantial
portion of Gulf War research funding has been used for studies focused on psychological stress and
psychiatric disorders. The federal Gulf War research effort has not, historically, been designed or
managed to achieve high-priority scientific objectives. Specifically, federal programs have not been
managed to resolve fundamental questions concerning the nature, causes, and treatments for Gulf War
illness. Consequently, federal Gulf War research programs have not, as yet, succeeded in improving the
health of ill Gulf War veterans.

Additional VA Programs Relevant to Gulf War Research 307

Congressional actions have brought about major changes in Gulf War research programs at both VA and
DOD in recent years. In 2006, Congress allocated an additional $15 million annually for Gulf War
research at VA to support a center of excellence for Gulf War research at the University of Texas
Southwestern (UTSW) in Dallas. The VA UTSW program is focused on identifying biological
abnormalities associated with Gulf War illness and effects of hazardous exposures during the Gulf War.
In addition, Congress appropriated $5 million in 2006 and $10 million in 2008 for an innovative Gulf
War research program managed by DOD’s Office of Congressionally Directed Medical Research
Programs. The new DOD Gulf War research program is focused on identifying effective treatments and
objective biological markers for Gulf War illness, and funded multiple studies in these areas in 2007.
Early indications suggest that changes at both VA and DOD represent promising new directions in the
federal Gulf War research effort that have the potential to make a significant difference in the health of
Gulf War veterans. Despite these positive developments, overall funding for federal Gulf War research
has declined dramatically since 2001. A renewed federal research commitment is urgently needed to
restore Gulf War research funding to pre-2001 levels in support of research focused on identifying
beneficial treatments for Gulf War illness and other priority Gulf War research issues identified in this
report.

308  Federal Research on Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

Recommendations
The Committee welcomes recent programmatic developments related to federal Gulf War research, and
urges the federal government to allocate no less than $60 million annually in the federal budget for Gulf
War research programs. This is consistent with annual funding levels committed for federal Gulf War
research between 1999 and 2001, adjusted for inflation. Specifically, the Committee recommends:


That the Administration request and Congress appropriate a minimum of $40 million annually to
the Department of Defense for the Gulf War Illness Research Program managed by DOD’s Office
of Congressionally Directed Medical Research Programs. This funding should support openlycompeted, peer-reviewed studies focused on identifying: (1) effective treatments for Gulf War
illness, (2) objective measures that distinguish ill from healthy veterans, and (3) underlying
biological mechanisms potentially amenable to treatment, in accordance with the priorities
identified by the Committee.



That the Administration request and Congress appropriate a minimum of $20 million annually to
the Department of Veterans Affairs for Gulf War illness research. This should include $15
million annually to support the Gulf War illness research center at the University of Texas
Southwestern through FY2010, with the balance to fund additional Gulf War research studies,
through Gulf War-specific and general solicitations for peer-reviewed proposals consistent with
research recommendations in this report.



That VA continue to fund the ALS Registry and the Gulf War Biorepository, focused more
specifically on projects related to Gulf War era veterans. The biorepository should be expanded
to include Gulf War era veterans with other diagnosed medical diseases and difficult-to-diagnose
conditions.



That the Department of Defense and the Department of Veterans Affairs collaborate in
establishing a comprehensive federal Gulf War research plan and a strategy to coordinate and
manage federal programs to ensure that priority research objectives are satisfactorily achieved.

Recommendations 309

310  Research Priorities and Recommendations

5| Research Priorities and Recommendations
Veterans of the 1990-1991 Gulf War had the distinction of serving their country in a military operation
that was a tremendous success, achieved in short order. But many had the misfortune of developing
lasting health consequences that were poorly understood and, for too long, denied or trivialized. The
extensive body of scientific research now available consistently indicates that Gulf War illness is real, that
it is the result of neurotoxic exposures during Gulf War deployment, and that few veterans have recovered
or substantially improved with time. Addressing the serious and persistent health problems that affect
Gulf War veterans as a result of their military service remains the obligation of the federal government
and all who are indebted to the men and women who risked their lives in Iraq, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia
17 years ago. This obligation is made more urgent by the length of time veterans have waited for answers
and assistance.
The Committee was directed to determine what has been learned about the health consequences of
military service in the 1990-1991 Gulf War and to recommend research directed toward improving the
health of Gulf War veterans. As described throughout this report, an extensive amount of research has
provided important progress and improved understanding of the nature and causes of Gulf War illness
and, more generally, the health of Gulf War veterans. Important questions remain, however. In
reviewing the broad range of studies and topics related to the health of Gulf War veterans, the Committee
identified many scientific issues for which additional research is needed and provided specific
recommendations for each topic considered. Those research recommendations are brought together and
summarized below, listed by categories of priority. Guidelines are also provided for improvements in
clinical and epidemiologic research on Gulf War veterans, based on limitations commonly identified in
existing studies.
While the Committee believes that all of the recommended research is important, it places highest priority
on research that can most directly contribute to the objective of improving the health of Gulf War
veterans. The corollary objective, of achieving a clearer and more comprehensive understanding of the
health consequences of the Gulf War, also remains essential both to assist Gulf War veterans and their
families, and to avoid similar consequences in future military deployments.

Highest Priority Gulf War Research
1. Identification of effective treatments for Gulf War illness. Highest priority is given to
research conducted to identify beneficial treatments for Gulf War illness. The primary objective is the
conduct of well-designed clinical trials of treatments that hold promise for providing substantial benefit
for veterans with Gulf War illness or identifiable subgroups. This research should include:


Studies that identify and systematically evaluate the effectiveness of currently available
treatments used for Gulf War illness or conditions with similarities to Gulf War illness.
Preliminary research should include pilot trials and/or observational studies capable of identifying
promising treatments suitable for evaluation in larger clinical trials.

Highest Priority Gulf War Research  311



Research to identify specific pathophysiological mechanisms underlying Gulf War illness that are
potentially amenable to treatment interventions.



Research to evaluate novel therapies based on scientific findings as they emerge.

2. Identification of objective measures that distinguish veterans with Gulf War illness
from healthy veterans. The Committee places a high priority on identification of biological markers
for Gulf War illness and measurable differences between groups of symptomatic and healthy Gulf War
veterans. In light of findings from current and ongoing studies describing associations between Gulf War
illness and neurological, immune, endocrine, genetic, and biochemical alterations, the Committee
recommends the following research:
 Studies that utilize state-of-the-art neuroimaging technologies to characterize aspects of brain
structure and function that may distinguish veterans with Gulf War illness, including illness or
exposure subgroups, from healthy Gulf War veterans.
 Comprehensive evaluation of autonomic nervous system function associated with Gulf War illness,
as well as illness and exposure subgroups.
 Research that investigates biological and genetic variability potentially linked to differences in
vulnerability to Gulf War exposures, including studies that evaluate associations between Gulf War
illness and genetic polymorphisms and activity levels of enzymes associated with uptake and
metabolism of neurotoxic exposures.
 Studies that evaluate alterations in central proinflammatory and inflammatory processes in Gulf
War veterans affected by Gulf War illness.
 Comprehensive evaluation of immune parameters associated with Gulf War illness, including
parameters that may differ among illness and/or exposure subgroups.
 Comprehensive evaluation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and other neuroendocrine
parameters in association with Gulf War illness, including parameters that may differ among illness
and/or exposure subgroups.
 Studies that determine the extent to which other physiological characteristics that distinguish CFS,
FM, and MCS patients from healthy controls are also associated with Gulf War illness.
 Studies that use the most reliable methods available to determine rates of latent or active
leishmania (particularly l. tropica) and mycoplasma infection in veterans with Gulf War illness and
healthy controls.
 Studies that utilize new technologies (proteomic, genomic, and metabolomic methods) capable of
identifying unique molecular characteristics of Gulf War illness, and of illness and exposure
subgroups.

312  Research Priorities and Recommendations

3. Studies that characterize effects of neurotoxic exposures associated with Gulf War
illness. Due to the consistency of findings relating Gulf War illness to neurotoxic exposures during the
war, the Committee gives high priority to studies that further characterize specific effects of Gulf Warrelated neurotoxic exposures, and recommends the following research:


Studies that utilize animal models to characterize persistent molecular, cellular, systemic, and
behavioral effects of individual and combined exposure to pyridostigmine bromide, pesticides
and insect repellants used in the Gulf War, and low-level sarin.



Studies that utilize animal models to characterize persistent effects of Gulf War-related
exposures, alone and in combination, on central proinflammatory processes and their biological
mediators in the central nervous system and target organs.



Studies that identify markers indicative of past exposure to Gulf War-related neurotoxic
compounds that can be applied to Gulf War veterans. This might include studies that utilize
technologies capable of detecting toxins or secondary metabolites retained for many years
following exposure, studies that identify persistent or “downstream” changes in biochemical
processes in relation to past neurotoxicant exposure, and studies that identify persistent changes
in the central nervous system and autonomic function associated with exposure to Gulf Warrelated neurotoxicants.

4. Research to determine if Gulf War veterans are affected by excess rates of
neurological diseases and to further characterize neurological abnormalities in Gulf War
veterans. Research studies indicating that Gulf War veterans have a significantly higher rate of
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) than their nondeployed peers raise concerns about other chronic
neurological conditions for which no studies have been conducted. The committee therefore recommends
the following research:


Epidemiologic studies to identify rates of diagnosed neurological diseases (including multiple
sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease, ALS, and brain cancers), as well as central nervous system
conditions that are difficult to precisely diagnose, in Gulf War veterans and appropriate
comparison groups.



Greater focus of VA’s ALS Registry and Gulf War brain tissue bank on projects related to Gulf
War veterans, and expansion of both programs to include Gulf War veterans with other diagnosed
neurological diseases and difficult-to-diagnose neurological conditions. In addition, the brain
tissue bank should be expanded to specifically include veterans with Gulf War multisymptom
illness and appropriate controls.

Highest Priority Gulf War Research  313

Other Research Areas of Importance for Addressing Gulf War Health Issues
Epidemiologic research: general. The Committee considers information provided by VA’s national
longitudinal study of Gulf War veterans and continued monitoring of the health of Gulf War veterans over
time to be extremely important. It therefore recommends that VA:


Make results from the national longitudinal study of Gulf War veterans publicly available at the
earliest possible time, including comprehensive findings related to multisymptom illness,
treatments and practices used by veterans to address their symptoms, and reported rates of
medical diagnoses. Results should include outcomes assessed according to the guidelines for
epidemiologic research provided below.



Continue current research evaluating cancer rates in Gulf War era veterans, and assess cancer
rates among subsets of veterans identified as being exposed to chemical nerve agents, depleted
uranium, and smoke from the Kuwaiti oil well fires.



Provide current information on overall and cause-specific mortality rates in Gulf War veterans,
and update this information, at minimum, at five year intervals. This should include information
on mortality in subgroups of Gulf War veterans identified by deployment locations, branch of
service, and exposures reported in the National Survey of Gulf War Era Veterans and Their
Families.



Conduct additional analyses of available data from existing large population-based studies to
more thoroughly evaluate rates of Gulf War illness, cancer, respiratory conditions, and other
health outcomes in relation to self-reported and modeled exposures, individually and in
combination, appropriately controlling for effects of other exposures in theater.



Make available comprehensive information on family members of Gulf War veterans from the
national study of Gulf War era veterans and family members. This should include information on
diagnosed conditions, multisymptom illness, behavioral problems, and birth defects. Health
parameters should also be assessed in subgroups of interest, such as family members of veterans
with/without Gulf War illness and subgroups defined by characteristics of veterans’ wartime
service.



Continue to monitor health and disease outcomes among veterans assessed in the National Survey
of Gulf War Era Veterans and Their Families, conducting longitudinal surveys and appropriate
clinical follow-up studies at five year intervals.



Further evaluate indications of possible increased risk of specific types of birth defects, as well as
other health problems in children of Gulf War veterans, using innovative study designs.

Studies to further characterize effects of Gulf War exposures
 Conduct an epidemiologic investigation to evaluate health outcomes in an expanded cohort of Gulf
War veterans who had the greatest exposure to depleted uranium during deployment, and an
appropriate comparison group. Evaluated health outcomes should include detailed information on
symptoms, Gulf War illness, functional status, diagnosed medical conditions, and reproductive
outcomes.

314  Research Priorities and Recommendations

 Commission a case-control study to determine whether Gulf War illness is associated with elevated
levels of squalene antibodies.
 Evaluate the association of anthrax vaccine adsorbed (AVA) with chronic symptoms,
multisymptom illness, and diagnosed disease by conducting a retrospective cohort study of military
personnel known to have received/not received AVA during the Gulf War and/or in the early years
of the AVIP program.
 Conduct an epidemiologic investigation to determine if personnel who served with the Army
National Guard’s 325th Maintenance Company in the Gulf War suffer excess health problems
associated with exposure to CARC paint during deployment, alone or in combination with other
Gulf War-related exposures.

Guidelines for Clinical and Epidemiologic Research on Gulf War Veterans
 Studies of Gulf War veterans should use well-constructed and clearly-described case definitions for
Gulf War illness and illness subgroups. Pending more widespread acceptance of an established
case definition, preferred case definitions are those that most clearly distinguish the pattern of
symptoms in Gulf War veterans from those in nondeployed era veterans, such as the Kansas Gulf
War illness case definition.
 In addition to general comparisons between Gulf War and nondeployed veterans, Gulf War
research studies should analyze results in relation to Gulf War veteran subgroups of interest,
including ill vs. well veterans and subgroups defined according to veterans’ locations in theater,
exposures, and other military and deployment characteristics potentially relevant to the outcomes
evaluated.
 Associations between deployment-related exposures and health outcomes in Gulf War veterans
should be evaluated using analytic methods that appropriately control for the effects of
confounding introduced by multiple exposures during deployment.
 Research studies whose principal focus is on psychiatric disorders such as posttraumatic stress
disorder or effects of psychological stressors are not directly relevant to Gulf War illness and
should not be considered Gulf War illness research.

Other Research Areas of Importance  315

316 

|

Acknowledgements

Since its inception, the work of the Committee has relied on the assistance and input provided by research
scientists, veterans, government officials, and members of the general public. The Committee could not
have executed its charge in the comprehensive manner required had it not been for this support. We have
been continually gratified by the generosity with which individuals from many sectors have
enthusiastically provided their expertise and time in this important endeavor.
We would first like to acknowledge former members of the Committee who have contributed greatly to
its work in the years since the last major report, but whose names do not appear as authors of the present
report. These past members include Mr. Adrian Atizado, Dr. Nicola Cherry, Dr. Robert Haley, Dr. Pierre
Pellier, Mr. Steve Robinson, and Dr. Hugh Tilson. This report, in no small part, reflects their
contributions. We also welcome new members LTC Adam Such and Dr. Dedra Buchwald, who recently
joined the Committee. Because they did not participate in discussions and approval of the present report,
neither former members nor new members are responsible for the report’s specific findings or content.
The Committee was mandated by Congress, and charged with advising the federal government on Gulf
War research, directing its advice specifically to the Secretary of Veterans Affairs, who chairs the
interagency group on the health of Gulf War veterans, the Deployment Health Working Group. We
express our thanks to the Secretaries of Veterans Affairs we have advised and under whom we have
served: Secretary Anthony J. Principi, Secretary R. James Nicholson, and Secretary James B. Peake. We
appreciate their support and continuing interest in our work and, more broadly, in issues concerning the
health of Gulf War veterans. We have also appreciated inquiries from members of Congress, and their
ongoing interest in and support of the Committee’s work.
There are many individuals, both officials and staff members, in the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA)
and the Department of Defense (DOD) who have been most helpful in providing information and
assistance to the Committee. Within VA, we express our gratitude to officials at the Office of Research
and Development: Chief Research and Development Officer Dr. Joel Kupersmith, Director of the Clinical
Science Research and Development Service Dr. Timothy O’Leary, and portfolio manager for VA’s Gulf
War illness research program Dr. William Goldberg, who also serves as the Committee’s Designated
Federal Officer. We also thank Mr. Phil Riggin, Special Assistant to the Secretary, who oversees VA’s
Office of Advisory Committees. Within the Department of Defense, we are grateful for the assistance of
Dr. Michael Kilpatrick, Deputy Director of the Office of Force Health Protection and Readiness and Dr.
Francis O’Donnell, medical consultant in that office. We also thank COL Janet Harris and CAPT Melissa
Kaime, past and current directors of the Army’s Office of Congressionally Directed Medical Research
Programs.
The Committee recognizes, with special appreciation, the Gulf War veterans and other members of the
public who have attended our meetings. We have considered their experiences and ideas—shared in
public testimony and in private conversations—to be extremely useful in charting our course, and keeping
us on course. Many veterans who have attended our meetings have themselves been chronically ill and
their participation has often required considerable personal effort and expense. Their continuing efforts
on behalf of their fellow veterans, 17 years after the war, have been an inspiration and a valuable asset in
the Committee’s work. Here we acknowledge veterans and members of the public who have offered
public testimony at Committee meetings since 2004: Mr. Mark Anderson, Ms. Lauren Billings, Mr.
Edward Bryan, Mr. Ed Butler, Ms. Becky Cann, Mr. Wesley Crawford, Mr. Albert Donnay, Ms. Julia
Dyckman, Mr. Andrew Eddowes, Mr. Dan Fahey, Ms. Connie Gonzales, Mr. Mike Hood, Ms. Alison
Johnson, Ms. Kathi Krome, Mr. Kirt Love, Dr. Ruth McGill, Dr. Meryl Nass, Mr. Harold Nelson,

Acknowledgements  317

Ms. Angela Newbold, Mr. Kevin Smith, Mr. Erwin Steffen, Mr. James Thew, Ms. Venus Val-Hammack,
and Mr. Cheyne Worley. We would like to single out for special acknowledgement Ms. Denise Nichols,
retired Air Force Major, nurse, and Desert Storm veteran, for her tireless participation in nearly every
meeting held by the Committee since its inception.
One of the most valuable assets in the Committee’s work has been our small but dedicated research staff.
Their work in providing both scientific and administrative support to the Committee’s activities has been
exemplary and we are grateful for their commitment and efforts. Our thanks to Ms. Laura Palmer, Ms.
Barbara LaClair, Dr. Kim Sullivan, and Ms. Callie Comtois. We also thank Dr. Jeff Levin for his
assistance with staff activities, including technical assistance in preparing this report.
We give special recognition and thanks to Dr. Lea Steele, who served as the Committee’s Scientific
Director throughout most of the period of review and deliberations covered by this document. We
appreciate her prodigious contribution in overseeing the scientific activities of the Committee during this
period, including preparation of this report.
The Committee is also greatly indebted to the scientists and government officials who have generously
provided presentations to our meetings, taken part in scientific discussions, and often provided helpful
insights and suggestions after their meeting participation. Their names are listed below, and the
Committee could not have conducted its work without their expertise and thoughtful assistance. We are
also grateful to the countless other scientists who have conferred with the Chair, Scientific Director, and
Committee members on a wide variety of scientific matters in relation to this work. Their insights have
helped to shape our consideration of important topics and identify useful resources. Although it is not
possible to name them all here, we are most grateful for their input and advice.
We thank the scientists and government officials listed below who have provided presentations at
Committee meetings since 2004. Detailed information on presentations and discussions is provided in
each meeting’s minutes, which can be found on the Committee’s website: www.va.gov/RAC-GWVI.

February 23-24, 2004 (Washington, D.C.):
Dr. John Concato
West Haven VA, Yale University
Mr. Roger Kaplan, Mr. Joe Gough, VA Office of Research and Development
Ms. Preeti Hans
Dr. Alan Magill
Walter Reed Army Institute of Research
Dr. Ya Fang Liu
Boston University School of Medicine
Dr. Mohan Sopori
Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute
Dr. John Ottenweller
East Orange, NJ, VA War-Related Illness and Injury Study Center
Dr. Mark Peakman
King’s College School of Medicine
Mr. Al Marshall
Sandia National Laboratories
Dr. Terry Pellmar
DOD Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute
Dr. Johnnye Lewis
University of New Mexico
Dr. Melissa McDiarmid
Baltimore VA Depleted Uranium Program
Dr. Sam Donta
Boston VA (retired), Donta Infectious Diseases

318  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

June 28-29, 2004 (East Orange, New Jersey)
Dr. Benjamin Natelson,
East Orange, NJ, VA War-Related Illness and Injury Study Center
Dr. Tom Findley, Dr. John
Ottenweller, Dr. Dane Cook,
Dr. Kevin Beck, Dr. Karen Quigley,
Dr. Liesel Copeland, Dr. Drew
Helmer, Dr. Gudrun Lange, Dr.
Helena Chandler, Dr. Don Ciccone,
Dr. Ronald Teichman
Mr. Roger Kaplan
VA Office of Research and Development
Dr. John Concato
West Haven VA, Yale University
Dr. Paul Greengard, Dr. Sharon
Intra-Cellular Therapies, Inc.
Mates, Dr. Allen Fienberg
October 25-26, 2004 (Washington, D.C.)
Dr. Jack Heller, Mr. Warren
U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine
Wortman, Mr. Jeff Kirkpatrick,
MAJ Christine Moser
CAPT Eugene Goodwin
U.S. Navy Medical Service Corps
Dr. David Cowan
Walter Reed Army Institute of Research
Dr. Charles Engel
Walter Reed Army Medical Center
Dr. Stephan Fihn
VA Office of Research and Development
Dr. Quentin Deming
Mr. Bill Weiss
April 6-8, 2005 (Washington, D.C.)
Dr. Iris Bell
Dr. William Reeves
Dr. Daniel Clauw
LTC Mark Melanson
Ms. Mary Ann Parkhurst
Dr. Wayne Briner
Dr. David Barber
COL John Grabenstein
Dr. Phillip Pittman
Dr. Brian Schuster

University of Arizona School of Medicine
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
University of Michigan School of Medicine
USACHPPM Health Physics
Battelle Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
University of Nebraska
University of Florida
Military Vaccine Agency, U.S. Army Medical Command
U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases
VA Office of Research and Development

September 19-21, 2005 (Washington, D.C.)
Dr. Gary Friedman
Texas Lung Institute
Dr. Bellina Veronesi
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Dr. Mark Witten
University of Arizona College of Medicine

Acknowledgements  319

September 19-21, 2005 (Washington, D.C.) (cont.)
Dr. Glen Ritchie
Battelle
Dr. Susan Proctor
Boston VA
Dr. Mihaela Aslan,
West Haven VA
Dr. Peter Peduzzi
Mr. Tim Bullman
Washington, D.C., VA
Dr. Paul Levine
George Washington University
Dr. Joel Kupersmith,
VA Office of Research and Development
Dr. Timothy O’Leary
Dr. Han Kang
Washington, D.C., VA
December 12-13, 2005 (Washington, D.C.)
Dr. Joel Kupersmith, Dr. William
VA Office of Research and Development
Goldberg
May 15-16, 2006 (Washington, D.C.)
Dr. Mohamed Abou-Donia
Duke University Medical Center
Dr. Robert Haley
University of Texas Southwestern School of Medicine
Secretary James Nicholson
U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs
Dr. James Baraniuk
Georgetown University School of Medicine
Dr. William Goldberg
VA Office of Research and Development
August 14-15, 2006 (Washington, D.C.)
Dr. Kevin Tracey
Feinstein Institute for Medical Research
Dr. Nancy Klimas
Miami VA, University of Miami School of Medicine
Dr. Mariana Morris
Wright State University Boonshoft School of Medicine
Dr. Mohan Sopori
Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute
Dr. Jau-Shyong Hong
National Institute for Environmental Health Sciences
Dr. Tomas Guilarte
Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health
Dr. Michael Kussman
VA Principal Deputy Undersecretary for Health
COL Janet Harris
U.S. Army Congressionally Directed Medical Research Programs
Dr. Joseph Francis, Dr. William
VA Office of Research and Development
Goldberg
November 6-7, 2006 (Dallas, Texas)
Ms. Kathleen Considine,
Research Triangle Institute
Mr. Vince Iannacchione
Dr. Robert Haley, Dr. Jeffrey
University of Texas Southwestern School of Medicine
Spence, Dr. Richard Briggs, Dr.
Christopher Sinton, Dr. James Bibb,

320  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

November 6-7, 2006 (Dallas, Texas) (cont.)
Dr. George DeMartino, Dr. Philip
University of Texas Southwestern School of Medicine
Thomas, Dr. Ilya Bezprozvanny
Dr. Louis Fiore
Boston VA MAVERIC Program
Dr. Anil Prasad
Tucson VA
Dr. Joel Kupersmith, Dr. William
VA Office of Research and Development
Goldberg
April 24-25, 2007 (Washington, D.C.)
Dr. Douglas Wallace
University of California at Irvine
Dr. Julia Golier
Bronx VA
Dr. Kristin Heaton
U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine
Dr. William Goldberg
VA Office of Research and Development
COL Janet Harris
U.S. Army Congressionally Mandated Medical Research Programs
July 18-19, 2007 (Dallas, Texas)
Dr. Jonathan Kerr
Dr. Robert Haley, Dr. Wendy Ringe,
Dr. Richard Briggs, Dr. Tom Ferree,
Dr. Sergei Cheshkov, Dr. Roderick
McColl, Dr. K.S. Gopinath, Dr.
Michael Motes
Dr. John Hart, Dr. James Bartlett
Dr. William Goldberg

St. George’s University of London
University of Texas Southwestern School of Medicine

University of Texas at Dallas
VA Office of Research and Development

April 7-8, 2008 (Boston, Massachusetts)
Dr. Ronald Bach
Minneapolis VA
Dr. Ashok Tuteja
Salt Lake City VA
Dr. Fred Gorelick, Dr. Avlin Imaeda West Haven VA, Yale University
General Richard Valente
Rhode Island Persian Gulf War Information and Relief Commission
Dr. Allen Fienberg
Intra-Cellular Therapies, Inc.
Dr. William Goldberg
VA Office of Research and Development
Dr. Louis Fiore
VA Boston MAVERIC Program
September 15-16, 2008 (Washington, D.C.)
Dr. Edward Kasarskis
Lexington VA
Dr. Ronnie Horner
University of Cincinnati
Dr. Eugene Oddone
Durham VA, Duke University Medical Center
Dr. Marie Lynn Miranda
Duke University Medical Center
Dr. Paul Levine
George Washington University

Acknowledgements  321

September 15-16, 2008 (Washington, D.C.) (cont.)
Dr. William Goldberg
VA Office of Research and Development
Dr. Robert Haley
University of Texas Southwestern School of Medicine
Dr. Mitchell Wallin
Washington, D.C., VA
CAPT Melissa Kaime
U.S. Army Congressionally Directed Medical Research Programs
Dr. Han Kang
Washington, D.C., VA
Dr. Karen Quigley, Dr. Helena
East Orange, NJ, VA War-Related Illness and Injury Study Center
Chandler, Dr. Gudrun Lange
Secretary James Peake
U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs

322  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

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| Appendices

| Appendix A

Association of Gulf War Experiences and Exposures
with Chronic Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness:
Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

396  Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

Appendix A-1. CARC (Chemical Agent Resistant Coating) Paint: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with CARC Exposures During Deployment
Study

Veterans
Studied

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Crude (no adjustments)

Haley
1997

249 Seabees,
24th NMCB

Near enough to smell
CARC paint sprayed

Haley Syndrome 1
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

RR (CI) = 0.9 (0.1-6.9)
RR (CI) = 3.2 (1.3-8.0)*
RR (CI) = 1.6 (0.5-5.1)

Kang
2002

10,423 U.S.
GWV

CARC paint

GW-unique neurological
symptom complex

OR (CI) = 5.4 (4.2-6.9)* 

Spencer
2001

1,119 GWV
from OR, WA

Painted with CARC

CMI
GWUI (study-defined)

OR (CI) = 1.9 (0.7-5.0)
OR (CI) = 2.1 (0.9-5.0)

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Appendix A-1 . Association of CARC Paint with Multisymptom Illness  397

_________________________________________________
CARC = Chemical Agent Resistant Coating; GW = Gulf War; GWV = Gulf War veterans; CMI = chronic multisymptom illness;464 GWUI = Gulf War unexplained illness;
OR = odds ratio; RR = risk ratio; CI = 95% confidence interval; p = p value;
* statistically significant;  calculated from reported data

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

398  Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

Appendix A-2. Chemical Agent-related Variables: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Possible Chemical Agent Exposures

Appendix A-2 . Association of Chemical Agent Variables with Multisymptom Illness  399

Study

Veterans
Studied

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Crude (no adjustments)

Blanchard
2006

1,035 GWV
veterans

In DOD-modeled
Khamisiyah exposure area

CMI-any
CMI-severe

OR (CI) = 1.6 (1.0-.2.6)
sign.*

Boyd
2003

978 GWV in
GW Registry

Days gas mask worn
High symptom vs. low
at least 4 hours
symptom groups
Days gas mask worn at all
Chemical/biological warfare

Goss Gilroy
1998

3,113
Chemical warfare agents
Canadian GWV

Cognitive symptoms
Chronic fatigue symptoms
Fibromyalgia symptoms

Gray
2002

3,831 U.S.
Use of gas masks
Navy Seabees

GWI (study-defined)

Haley
1997

249 Seabees,
24th NMCB

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

p < 0.01*
p = 0.12
p < 0.01*
ns
ns
ns
OR (CI) = 2.6 (2.1-3.1)*

OR(CI) = 1.4 (1.1-1.8)*

Experienced likely chemical Haley Syndrome 1
attack
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

RR (CI) = 1.3 (0.4-3.9)
RR (CI) = 7.8 (2.4-25.9)*
RR (CI) = 2.3 (1.0-5.3)

±

p < 0.001*

In sector 7 on 20 Jan 1990

Haley Syndrome 1
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

undefined
RR (CI) = 4.3 (1.9-10.0)*
undefined

±

p = 0.004*

Haley Syndrome 1
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

RR (CI) = 2.2 (0.3-15.2)
RR (CI) = 5.6 (2.3-13.6)*
RR (CI) = 1.1 (0.2-7.6)

ns

Found enemy's chemical or Haley Syndrome 1
biological weapons
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

RR (CI) = 6.0 (1.6-23.1)*
RR (CI) = 3.2 (0.9-11.4)
RR (CI) = 1.4 (0.2-9.4)

Saw explosion suspected
chemical land mine

400  Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

Appendix A-2. Chemical Agent-related Variables: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Possible Chemical Agent Exposures
Study

Veterans
Studied

Iowa
1997

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Crude (no adjustments)

1,896 Iowa
GWV

Chemical warfare agents

Cognitive symptoms
Fibromyalgia symptoms

Prev diff = 6.8, p< 0.001*
Prev diff = 8.1, p< 0.001*

Ishoy
1999

686 Danish
GWV

Nerve gas
Other chemical warfare
Mustard gas

Gastrointestinal symptoms

ns
trend test, p < 0.05*
ns

Kang
2002

10,423 U.S.
GWV

Nerve gas

GW-unique neurological
symptom complex

Chemical weapons area

Number of symptoms

Kelsall
2004
McCauley
2001

2,918 U.S.
GWV

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

ns

OR(CI) = 15.1 (11.6-19.7)* 

ARM (CI) = 1.3 (1.2-1.5)*

Within 50 km. of Khamisiyah 24 symptoms
(DOD determined)
Participated in or within sight
of Khamisiyah

ns
6 of 24 symptoms sign.,
ORs = 1.6-2.0

Nisenbaum
2000

1,002 U.S. Air
Force GWV

Thought biological or
chemical weapons used

CMI-Mild/moderate
CMI-Severe

OR (CI) = 2.5 (1.8-3.5)*
OR (CI) = 6.1 (3.4-10.7)*

OR (CI) = 2.3 (1.5-3.3)*
OR (CI) = 3.5 (1.7-6.9)*

Page
2006

5,234 U.S.
Army GWV

In DOD-modeled
Khamisiyah exposure area

mild-moderate symptoms
severe symptoms

ns
2 of 47 symptoms sign.

Proctor
1998

252 U.S. GWV Chemical, biological
warfare agents

Dermatological symptoms
Musculoskeletal symptoms
Neurological symptoms
Neuropsych symptoms
Psychiatric symptoms

ns
sign corr, p = 0.001*
sign corr, p = 0.013*
sign corr, p = 0.009*
sign corr, p = 0.001*

p = 0.015*
sign corr*
sign corr*
sign corr*

Appendix A-2. Chemical Agent-related Variables: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Possible Chemical Agent Exposures
Study

Veterans
Studied

Reid
2001

3,531 U.K.
GWV

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Crude (no adjustments)

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Chemical nerve gas attack

CFS
MCS
CFS
MCS

OR (CI) = 1.7 (0.9-3.4)
OR (CI) = 3.8 (1.9-7.6)*
OR (CI) = 2.5 (0.9-7.1)
OR (CI) = 4.2 (1.4-12.0)*

OR (CI) = 1.5 (0.7-3.1)
OR (CI) = 3.2 (1.5-6.7)*
OR (CI) = 1.4 (0.4-4.6)
OR (CI) = 2.5 (0.8-7.9)

Mustard gas
Appendix A-2 . Association of Chemical Agent Variables with Multisymptom Illness  401

Schumm
2005

650 Ohio GWV Located in areas potentially CMI
reservists
affected by Khamisiyah
GWI (Kansas definition)

sign.*
ns

Spencer
2001

1,119 GWV
from OR, WA

Inadequate protection during CMI
chemical/SCUD alarms
GWUI (study-defined)

OR (CI) = 3.2 (1.3 -7.8)*
OR (CI) = 2.4 (1.0-5.6)*

Worked around chemical
warfare agents

OR (CI) = 1.9 (0.7-5.3)

CMI

Steele
2000

1,548 Kansas
GWV

Notified by DOD of possible GWI (Kansas definition)
Khamisiyah exposure

OR (CI) = 1.5 (1.1-1.9)*

Suadicani
1999

667 Danish
GWV

Nerve gas
Other chemical warfare
Mustard gas
SCUD explosion w/in 2 km

Neurological symptoms

ns
ns
trend test, p < 0.05*
ns

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

OR (CI) = 1.3 (0.9-1.7)

ns

Unwin
1999

2,735 U.K.
GWV

NBC suits
Heard chemical alarms
Chemical nerve gas attack

CMI

OR (CI) = 2.7 (2.3-3.3)*
OR (CI) = 2.2 (1.9-2.6)*
OR (CI) = 2.6 (1.9-3.5)*

Wolfe
1998

2,119 U.S.
Army GWV

Poison gas exposure

More than 5 symptoms
reported

OR (CI) = 6.3 (1.2-33.3)*

402  Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

Appendix A-2. Chemical Agent-related Variables: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Possible Chemical Agent Exposures
Study

Veterans
Studied

Wolfe
2002

945 U.S.
Army GWV

Exposure Assessed
Placed on formal alert for
chemical attack
3-10 times

more than 10 times

Health Outcome

Crude (no adjustments)

CMI-Mild-mod.
CMI-Severe
CMI - Mild, mod, severe

OR (CI) = 1.2 (0.8-1.8)
OR (CI) = 1.1 (0.7-1.7)

CMI-Mild-mod.
CMI-Severe
CMI - Mild, mod, severe

OR (CI) = 1.9 (1.4-2.7)*
OR (CI) = 2.7 (2.0-3.7)*

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

ns

ns

_________________________________________________
GW = Gulf War; GWV = Gulf War veterans; GWI = Gulf War Illness; CMI = chronic multisymptom illness;464 CFS = chronic fatigue syndrome; MCS = multiple chemical sensitivity;
OR = odds ratio; RR = risk ratio; corr = correlation; prev diff = prevalence difference; ARM = adjusted ratio of means; CI = 95% confidence interval; p = p value; sign. = statistically significant;
ns = not significant; * statistically significant;  calculated from reported data; ± limited number of selected exposures in model

Appendix A-3. Contaminated and Local Food and Water: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Local or Contaminated Food/Water

Appendix A-3. Association of Contaminated Food and Water with Multisymptom Illness  403

Study

Veterans
Studied

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Boyd
2003

978 GWV in
GW Registry

Ate/drank local food
or water

High symptom vs. low
symptom groups

Gray
2002

3,831 U.S.
Drank contaminated water
Navy Seabees Food poisoning in unit
Water from desert bag
Got food poisoning
Bathed in local
pond/river/Gulf
Ate local food

GWI (study-defined)

Haley
1997

249 Seabees,
24th NMCB

Drinking water had
petroleum taste

Haley Syndrome 1
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

Ishoy
1999

686 Danish
GWV

Ingested contaminated food Gastrointestinal symptoms
Ingested local food
Bathed in or drank
contaminated water
Brushed teeth with
contaminated water
Bathed/swam in local lake,
pond, Gulf

trend test, p < 0.001*
trend test, p < 0.01*
trend test, p < 0.001*

ns
ns
ns

trend test, p < 0.001*

ns

Ate food contaminated
with smoke, oil
Bathed in or drank
contaminated water

GW-unique neurological
symptom complex

OR (CI) = 10.6 (8.1-13.9)* 

Ate local food

CFS
MCS

Kang
2002

Reid
2001

10,423 U.S.
GWV

3,531 U.K.
GWV

Crude (no adjustments)

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

p < 0.01*

OR (CI) = 3.8 (3.1-4.7)*
OR (CI) = 2.1 (1.8-2.6)*
OR (CI) = 2.0 (1.7-2.4)*
OR (CI) = 2.5 (1.9-3.3)*
OR (CI) = 1.8 (1.5-2.1)*

OR (CI) = 1.7 (1.3-2.2)*
OR (CI) = 1.4 (1.1-1.8)*
OR (CI) = 1.4 (1.1-1.7)*
ns
ns

OR (CI) = 1.3 (1.1-1.6)*

ns

RR (CI) = 2.6 (0.9-7.7)
RR (CI) = 2.8 (1.3-6.3)*
RR (CI) = 2.6 (1.2-5.6)*

ns

OR (CI) = 6.3 (4.9-8.1)* 

OR (CI) = 0.8 (0.5-1.4)
OR (CI) = 0.8 (0.4-1.6)

OR (CI) = 0.9 (0.5-1.6)
OR (CI) = 0.9 (0.5-1.7)

404  Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

Appendix A-3. Contaminated and Local Food and Water: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Local or Contaminated Food/Water
Study

Veterans
Studied

Spencer
2001
Suadicani
1999

Unwin
1999

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Crude (no adjustments)

1,119 GWV
from OR, WA

Drank local alcohol

CMI
GWUI (study-defined)

OR (CI) = 0.5 (0.2-1.6)
OR (CI) = 0.8 (0.3-1.8)

667 Danish
GWV

Ingested contaminated food Neurological symptoms
(fumes, oil, chemicals)
Bathed in/drank contam
water (fumes, oil, chemicals)
Ingested local food
Brushed teeth using
contaminated water

2,735 U.K.
GWV

Ate local food

CMI

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

trend test, p < 0.001*

ns

trend test, p < 0.001*

OR (CI) = 2.9 (1.8-4.6)*

trend test, p < 0.001*
trend test, p < 0.001*

ns
ns

OR (CI) = 1.1 (0.9-1.3)

_________________________________________________
GW = Gulf War; GWV = Gulf War veterans; GWI = Gulf War illness; GWUI = Gulf War unexplained illness; CMI = chronic multisymptom illness;464 CFS = chronic fatigue syndrome;
MCS = multiple chemical sensitivity; OR = odds ratio; RR = risk ratio; corr = correlation; prev diff = prevalence difference; CI = 95% confidence interval; p = p value; sign. = statistically significant;
ns = not significant; * statistically significant;  calculated from reported data

Appendix A-4. Depleted Uranium: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Depleted Uranium Exposure
Study

Veterans
Studied

Haley
1997

249 Seabees,
24th NMCB

Appendix A-4. Association of Depleted Uranium with Multisymptom Illness  405

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Crude (no adjustments)

Any exposure to DU

Haley Syndrome 1
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

RR (CI) = 0.7 (0.1-5.2)
RR (CI) = 2.4 (0.9-6.0)
RR (CI) = 0.8 (0.2-3.1)

Walked past DU munitions

Haley Syndrome 1
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

RR (CI) = 0.8 (0.1-5.6)
RR (CI) = 2.6 (1.0-6.5)
RR (CI) = 0.8 (0.2-3.3)

Stood 6 feet from DU
munitions

Haley Syndrome 1
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

RR (CI) = 0.9 (0.1-6.9)
RR (CI) = 1.7 (0.6-5.4)
RR (CI) = 1.0 (0.3-4.1)

Ishoy
1999

686 Danish
GWV

Inside destroyed Iraqi tanks Gastrointestinal symptoms

trend test, p < 0.01*

Kang
2002

10,423 U.S.
GWV

DU exposure

OR (CI) = 5.7 (4.4-7.6)* 

Kelsall
2004

1,456
DU
Australian GWV

Number of symptoms

Spencer
2001

1,119 GWV
from OR, WA

DU exposure

CMI
GWUI (study-defined)

OR (CI) = 4.5 (1.7-11.4)*
OR (CI) = 3.7 (1.5-8.8)*

Suadicani
1999

667 Danish
GWV

Inside destroyed Iraqi tank
DU exposure

Neurological symptoms

trend test, p < 0.01*
trend test, p < 0.001*

GW-unique neurological
symptom complex

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

ns

ARM (CI) = 1.0 (0.9-1.1)

OR (CI) = 2.3 (0.9-5.7)

________________________________________________
DU = depleted uranium; GW = Gulf War; GWV = Gulf War veterans; GWUI = Gulf War unexplained illness; CMI = chronic multisymptom illness;464 OR = odds ratio; RR = risk ratio; ARM = adjusted
ratio of means; CI = 95% confidence interval; p = p value; ns = not significant; * statistically significant;  calculated from reported data

406  Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

Appendix A-5. Fuel Exposures: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Fuel Exposures During Deployment
Study
Gray
2002

Haley
1997

Veterans
Studied

Exposure Assessed

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

Appendix A-5. Association of Fuel Exposures with Multisymptom Illness  407

Crude (no adjustments)

3,831 U.S.
Jet fuel burned in tent
Navy Seabees heaters
Oil sprayed on ground

GWI (study-defined)

OR (CI) = 2.1(1.8-2.5)*

ns

OR (CI) = 2.2 (1.9-2.6)*

ns

249 Seabees,
24th NMCB

Burned jet fuel in stove or
lantern in tent

Haley Syndrome 1
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

RR (CI) = 0.7 (0.2-2.2)
RR (CI) = 0.9 (0.4-2.1)
RR (CI) = 0.7 (0.3-1.7)

Worked on sand sprayed
with petroleum

Haley Syndrome 1
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

RR (CI) = 1.8 (0.6-5.6)
RR (CI) = 2.1 (0.9-4.9)
RR (CI) = 0.9 (0.4-2.0)

Iowa
1997

1,896 Iowa
GWV

Solvents/petrochemicals

Cognitive symptoms
Fibromyalgia symptoms

Prev diff = 8.6, p < 0.001*
Prev diff = 6.7, p < 0.001*

Ishoy
1999

686 Danish
GWV

Diesel, kerosene, other
fumes
Evaporated fuel on ground
to suppress dust
Skin contact with fuel

Gastrointestinal symptoms

ns

Proctor
1998

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Health Outcome

252 U.S. GWV Vehicle exhaust

Smoke from tent heaters

trend test, p < 0.01*

ns

trend test, p < 0.001*

ns

Cardiac symptoms
Neuro symptoms

sign corr, p = 0.026*
sign corr, p = 0.024*

ns
ns

Cardiac symptoms
Neuro symptoms
Pulmonary symptoms

sign corr, p < 0.001*
sign corr, p = 0.001*
sign corr, p < 0.001*

p = 0.011*
ns
p = 0.007*

408  Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

Appendix A-5. Fuel Exposures: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Fuel Exposures During Deployment
Study

Veterans
Studied

Reid
2001

3,531 U.K.
GWV

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Crude (no adjustments)

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Exhaust from heaters

CFS
MCS
CFS
MCS

OR (CI) = 1.3 (0.7-2.3)
OR (CI) = 2.0 (0.9-4.8)
OR (CI) = 2.1 (1.2-3.6)*
OR (CI) = 1.7 (0.9-3.2)

OR (CI) = 1.4 (0.7-2.6)
OR (CI) = 2.8 (1.1-7.5)*
OR (CI) = 1.8 (1.0-3.5)*
OR (CI) = 1.7 (0.8-3.6)

CMI
GWUI (study-defined)
CMI
GWUI (study-defined)
CMI
GWUI (study-defined)
CMI
GWUI (study-defined)

OR( CI) = 1.9 (0.9-4.0)
OR (CI) = 2.1 (1.1-4.0)*
OR (CI) = 1.8 (0.9-3.4)
OR (CI) = 1.6 (0.9-2.9)
OR (CI) = 2.3 (1.1-4.7)*
OR (CI) = 2.0 (1.1-3.7)*
OR (CI) = 2.4 (1.3-4.5)*
OR (CI) = 2.2 (1.2-3.8)*

CMI

OR (CI) = 1.5 (0.8-3.0)
OR (CI) = 3.8 (2.0-7.1)*

1-5 times
6+ times

GWUI (study-defined)

OR (CI) = 1.5 (0.9-2.8)
OR (CI) = 3.6 (2.0-6.3)*

Diesel, kerosene or other
fumes
Evaporated diesel oil used
on ground
Skin contact with diesel,
other petrochemical fuel

Neurological symptoms

trend test, p < 0.01*

ns

trend test, p < 0.01*

ns

trend test, p < 0.001*

ns

Diesel on skin

Spencer
2001

1,119 GWV
from OR, WA

Kerosene tent heater
Diesel tent heater
Potbelly tent heater
Cleaned tent heater
Direct contact with
diesel/petroleum fuel
1-5 times
6+ times

Suadicani
1999

667 Danish
GWV

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

Appendix A-5. Fuel Exposures: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Fuel Exposures During Deployment
Study

Veterans
Studied

Unwin
1999

2,735 U.K.
GWV

Wolfe
2002

945 U.S.
Army GWV

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Appendix A-5. Association of Fuel Exposures with Multisymptom Illness  409

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Diesel or petrochemical
fumes
Exhaust from heaters or
generators
Diesel or petrochemical
on skin

CMI

OR (CI) = 2.1 (1.7-2.5)*

CMI

OR (CI) = 1.9 (1.6-2.2)*

CMI

OR (CI) = 1.8 (1.5-2.1)*

Diesel fuel odor

CMI-Mild-moderate
CMI-Severe
CMI-Mild,mod,severe

OR (CI) = 1.9 (1.4-2.6)*
OR (CI) = 2.7 (1.9-3.9)*

CMI-Mild-moderate
CMI- Severe
CMI-Mild,mod,severe

OR (CI) = 1.1 (0.8-1.5)
OR (CI) = 1.6 (1.1-2.2)*

Heater in tent

Crude (no adjustments)

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

ns

OR (CI) = 1.4 (1.0-1.8)*

_________________________________________________
GW = Gulf War; GWV = Gulf War veterans; GWI = Gulf War illness; GWUI = Gulf War unexplained illness; CMI = chronic multisymptom illness;464 CFS = chronic fatigue syndrome;
MCS = multiple chemical sensitivity; OR = odds ratio ; RR = risk ratio; corr = correlation; prev diff = prevalence difference; CI = 95% confidence interval; p = p value;
sign. = statistically significant; ns = not significant;
* statistically significant;  calculated from reported data

410  Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

Appendix A-6. Oil Well Fires: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Oil Well Fire Exposures During Deployment

Appendix A-6. Association of Oil Well Fires with Multisymptom Illness  411

Study

Veterans
Studied

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Cherry
2001

7,791 U.K.
GWV

Days exposed to oil fire
smoke

Overall symptom severity

Gray
1999

527 U.S.
Oil fire smoke
Navy Seabees

23 individual symptoms

15 of 23 symptoms sign;
ORs = 2.1-5.7

Gray
2002

3,831 U.S.
Oil fire smoke
Navy Seabees Oil fire smoke
(modeled: yes/no)

GWI (study-defined)

OR (CI) = 2.2 (1.9-2.7)*
OR (CI) = 1.5 (1.3-1.8)*

Haley
1997

249 Seabees,
24th NMCB

Crude (no adjustments)

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

sign. corr, p < 0.001*

Lived/worked in air filled with Haley Syndrome 1
oil well smoke
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

RR (CI) = 0.9 (0.1-6.3)
RR (CI) = 1.6 (0.2-11.0)
RR (CI) = 1.6 (0.2-11.5)

Scaled smoke exposure

trend test, p = 0.854
trend test, p = 0.021*
trend test, p = 0.072

Haley Syndrome 1
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Iowa
1997

1,896 Iowa
GWV

Smoke/combustion products Cognitive symptoms
Fibromyalgia symptoms

Prev diff = 5.1, p < 0.001*
Prev diff = 5.7, p < 0.001*

Ishoy
1999

686 Danish
GWV

Fumes from burning
oil wells

Gastrointestinal symptoms

ns

Kang
2002

10,423 U.S.
GWV

Food contaminated with
oil, smoke

GW-unique neurological
symptom complex

OR (CI) = 10.6 (8.1-13.9)* 

Nisenbaum
2000

1002 U.S. Air
Force GWV

Direct contact with smoke/
crude oil from oil well fires

CMI - Mild-moderate
CMI - Severe

OR (CI) = 1.3 (1.0-1.7)
OR (CI) = 2.0 (1.2-3.5)*

ns
OR (CI) = 0.4 (0.3-0.7)*

OR (CI) = 1.3 (0.9-1.8)
OR (CI) = 1.6 (0.8-3.4)

412  Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

Appendix A-6. Oil Well Fires: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Oil Well Fire Exposures During Deployment
Study

Veterans
Studied

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Proctor
1998

252 U.S. GWV Oil fire smoke

Cardiac symptoms
Neuro symptoms
Pulmonary symptoms

Reid
2001

3,531 U.K.
GWV

Oil fire smoke

CFS
MCS

Spencer
2001

1,119 GWV
from OR, WA

Eye irritation from burning oil
wells
1-5 days
GWUI (study-defined)
6+ days
1-5 days
6+ days

CMI

Unwin
1999

2,735 U.K.
GWV

Oil fire smoke

CMI

Wolfe
2002

945 U.S.
Army GWV

Oil fire smoke odor

CMI - Mild-moderate
CMI - Severe
CMI - Mild, mod, severe

Crude (no adjustments)

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

ns
ns
ns
OR (CI) = 0.9 (0.5-1.4)
OR (CI) = 4.3 (1.6-12.2)*

OR (CI) = 1.1 (0.6-2.0)
OR (CI) = 4.6 (1.6-13.3)*

OR (CI) = 1.5 (0.9-2.8)
OR (CI) = 3.6 (2.0-6.3)*
OR (CI) = 2.6 (1.3-5.2)*
OR (CI) = 4.5 (2.1-9.6)*
OR (CI) = 1.8 (1.5-2.1)*

OR (CI) = 2.1 (1.5-2.9)*
OR (CI) = 2.9 (2.1-4.1)*
OR (CI) = 1.6 (1.2-2.1)*

_________________________________________________
GW = Gulf War; GWV = Gulf War veterans; GWI = Gulf War illness; GWUI = Gulf War unexplained illness; CMI = chronic multisymptom illness;464 CFS = chronic fatigue syndrome;
MCS = multiple chemical sensitivity; OR = odds ratio ; RR = risk ratio; corr = correlation; prev diff = prevalence difference; CI = 95% confidence interval; p = p value;
sign. = statistically significant; ns = not significant; * statistically significant;  calculated from reported data

Appendix A-7. Pesticides and Insect Repellants: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Pesticide Exposures During Deployment
Study

Veterans
Studied

Cherry
2001

7,971 U.K.
GWV

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

Appendix A-7. Association of Pesticides with Multisymptom Illness  413

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Days handling pesticide

Overall symptom severity
Peripheral symptoms
Neurological symptoms
Peripheral neuropathy
Widespread pain

sign. corr, p < 0.001*
sign. corr, p < 0.002*
sign. corr, p < 0.003*
OR = 1.3, p < 0.001*
Ns

Days using insect repellant

Overall symptom severity
Peripheral symptoms
Neurological symptoms
Peripheral neuropathy
Widespread pain

sign. corr, p < 0.005*
sign. corr, p < 0.006*
sign. corr, p < 0.007*
sign. corr, p < 0.008*
OR = 1.2, p < 0.001*

Crude (no adjustments)

Gray
2002

3,831 U.S.
Pesticides
Navy Seabees Wore flea collar
Wore treated uniform

GWI (study-defined)

OR (CI) = 3.5 (2.5-4.9)*
OR (CI) = 3.8 (2.7-5.2)*
OR (CI) = 3.4 (2.7-4.2)*

OR (CI) = 1.9 (1.2-2.9)*
ns
ns

Haley
1997

249 Seabees,
24th NMCB

Haley Syndrome 1
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

RR (CI) = 8.7 (3.0-24.7)*
RR (CI) = 2.9 (1.1-7.6)*
RR (CI) = 2.7 (1.0-7.2)

±

p = 0.001*

±

p < 0.001*

Wore flea collar

DEET scale, govt. repellant Haley Syndrome 1
users
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

trend test, p = 0.14
trend test, p = 0.4
trend test, p = 0.004*

DEET scale, Off! users

Haley Syndrome 1
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

trend test, p = 0.06
trend test, p = 0.19
trend test, p = 0.06

ns

Haley Syndrome 1
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

trend test, p = 0.01*
trend test, p = 0.40
trend test, p = 0.19

ns

DEET scale, Skin-so-soft
users

414  Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

Appendix A-7. Pesticides and Insect Repellants: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Pesticide Exposures During Deployment
Study

Veterans
Studied

Haley (cont.)

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Crude (no adjustments)

Wore treated uniform

Haley Syndrome 1
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

RR (CI) = 6.0 (1.6-23.1)*
undefined
RR (CI) =1.4 (0.2-9.4)

Sprayed pesticides

Haley Syndrome 1
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

RR (CI) = 3.0 (0.9-10.3)
RR (CI) = 2.8 (1.1-7.0)*
RR (CI) = 2.0 (0.7-5.4)

Residence sprayed with
pesticides

Haley Syndrome 1
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

RR (CI) = 7.3 (0.9-55.4)
RR (CI) = 0.5 (0.2-1.1)
RR (CI) = 1.0 (0.4-2.2)

Personally sprayed
residence with pesticides

Haley Syndrome 1
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

RR (CI) = 2.5 (0.8-7.6)
RR (CI) = 0.6 (0.2-1.5)
RR (CI) = 1.2 (0.5-2.8)

Cognitive symptoms
Fibromyalgia symptoms

Prev diff = 14.2, p < 0.001*
Prev diff = 11.0, p < 0.001*

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Iowa
1997

1,896 Iowa
GWV

Pesticides

Ishoy
1999

686 Danish
GWV

Lotions, sprays against fleas Gastrointestinal symptoms
Insecticides against
cockroaches

Kelsall
2004

1,456 Australian Pesticides
GWV
Insect repellents

Number of symptoms

ARM (CI) = 1.3 (1.2-1.4)*
ARM (CI) = 1.2 (1.1-1.3)*

Kelsall
2005

1,424 Australian Pesticides
GWV
Insect repellents

Number of neurological
symptoms

ARM (CI) = 1.7 (1.4-2.0)*
ARM (CI) = 1.3 (1.1-1.5)*

trend test, p < 0.001*
trend test, p < 0.001*

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

ns
OR(CI) = 2.3 (1.2-4.4)*

Appendix A-7. Pesticides and Insect Repellants: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Pesticide Exposures During Deployment
Study

Veterans
Studied

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Crude (no adjustments)

Nisenbaum
2000

1,002 U.S. Air
Force GWV

Used insect repellent on
regular basis

CMI- Mild to moderate
CMI- Severe

OR (CI) = 2.0 (1.5-2.6)*
OR (CI) = 3.4 (2.0-6.0)*

Proctor
1998

252 U.S. GWV Pesticides

Appendix A-7. Association of Pesticides with Multisymptom Illness  415

Reid
2001

Schumm
2005

Spencer
2001

3,531 U.K.
GWV

ns
ns
sign. corr, p = 0.001*
sign. corr, p = 0.007*
ns
ns

CFS
MCS

OR (CI) = 1.2 (0.7-2.1)
OR (CI) = 1.0 (0.6-1.8)
OR (CI) = 10.6 (2.6-43.9)* OR (CI) = 10.9 (2.6-45.8)*

Pesticides on clothing

CFS
MCS

OR (CI) = 1.4 (0.9-2.2)
OR (CI) = 1.2 (0.7-3.1)
OR (CI) = 11.3 (4.8-27.0)* OR (CI) = 12.3 (5.1-30.0)*

CMI
GWI (Kansas definition)

sign.*
ns

Frequency of personal
pesticide use

CMI
GWI (Kansas definition)

sign.*
sign.*

DEET

CMI
GWUI (study-defined)
CMI
GWUI (study-defined)
CMI
GWUI (study-defined)

OR (CI) = 3.3 (1.8-6.3)*
OR (CI) = 2.7 (1.5-4.7)*
OR (CI) = 3.6 (1.8-6.9)*
OR (CI) = 3.1 (1.7-5.7)*
OR (CI) = 2.3 (0.7-7.6)
OR (CI) = 2.9 (1.0-8.3)

Sprayed pesticide
Burned surplus insecticide

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

OR (CI) = 1.7 (1.2-2.3)*
OR (CI) = 2.4 (1.3-4.5)*

Personal pesticides

650 Ohio GWV Frequency of pesticides
reservists
sprayed in billeting area

1,119 GWV
from OR, WA

Dermatological symptoms
Gastrointestinal symptoms
Musculoskeletal symptoms
Neurological symptoms
Neuropsych symptoms
Psychiatric symptoms

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

p = 0.011*
ns

OR± (CI) = 1.5 (0.8-2.8)

416  Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

Appendix A-7. Pesticides and Insect Repellants: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Pesticide Exposures During Deployment
Study

Veterans
Studied

Suadicani
1999

667 Danish
GWV

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Crude (no adjustments)

Lotions or spray against
e.g. fleas
Insecticides against
cockroaches

Neurological symptoms

trend test, p < 0.001*

ns

trend test, p < 0.001*

ns

Unwin
1999

2,735 U.K.
GWV

Personal pesticides
Pesticides on clothing or
bedding

CMI

Wolfe
2002

945 U.S.
Army GWV

Insecticide odor

CMI - Mild-moderate
CMI - Severe
CMI - Mild, mod, severe

OR( CI) = 2.2 (1.9-2.6)*
OR (CI) = 1.9 (1.6-2.2)*

OR (CI) = 1.4 (1.0-2.1)
OR (CI) = 3.1 (2.2-4.3)*
ns

_________________________________________________
GW = Gulf War; GWV = Gulf War veterans; GWI = Gulf War illness; GWUI = Gulf War unexplained illness; CMI = chronic multisymptom illness; 464 CFS = chronic fatigue syndrome;
MCS = multiple chemical sensitivity; OR = odds ratio; RR = risk ratio; corr = correlation; prev diff = prevalence difference; CI = 95% confidence interval; p = p value;
sign. = statistically significant; ns = not significant; * statistically significant; ± limited number of selected exposures in model

Appendix A-8. Psychological Stressors: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Psychological Stressors During Deployment
Veterans
Studied

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Australia DVA 1,456
2003
Australian
GWV

MSE score = 0-4
MSE score = 5-8
MSE score = 9-12
MSE score > 12
Dose response

Total number of symptoms

Blanchard
2006

1,035 U.S.
GWV

Mean combat exposure
score

CMI

Boyd
2003

978 GWV in
GW Registry

Traumatic event
Battle experiences

High symptom vs. low symptom
groups

Cherry
2001

7,971 U.K.
GWV

Combat

Overall symptom severity
Peripheral symptoms
Neurological symptoms
Respiratory symptoms
Gastrointestinal symptoms

Ford
2001

237 cases,
113 controls

Combat exposure score

Unexplained illness case,
confirmed by physician exam

OR (CI) = 1.0 (1.0-1.1)*

Goss Gilroy
1998

3,112
Psychological stressors
Canadian GWV

Cognitive symptoms
Chronic fatigue symptoms
Fibromyalgia symptoms

POR (CI) = 2.1 (1.7-2.5)*
POR (CI) = 2.2 (1.5-3.1)*
POR (CI) = 1.9 (1.5-2.4)*

Gray
2002

3,831 U.S.
Seeing someone killed
Navy Seabees Seeing dead bodies
Direct combat

GWI (study-defined)

Study

Crude (no adjustments)

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

ARM = 1.0
ARM (CI) = 1.3 (1.2-1.5)*
ARM (CI) = 1.8 (1.6-2.0)*
ARM (CI) = 2.5 (2.3-2.8)*
p < 0.001*

Appendix A-8. Association of Psychological Stressors with Multisymptom Illness  417

p < 0.001*

p = 0.03*
p = 0.15
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns

OR (CI) = 3.1 (2.4-4.1)*
OR (CI) = 2.6 (2.2-3.1)*
OR (CI) = 2.6 (2.1-3.2)*

OR(CI) = 1.6 (1.1-2.2)*
ns
ns

418  Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

Appendix A-8. Psychological Stressors: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Psychological Stressors During Deployment
Study

Veterans
Studied

Haley
1997

249 Seabees,
24th NMCB

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Crude (no adjustments)

Combat stress index

Haley Syndrome 1
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

trend test, p=0.024*
trend test, p=0.260
trend test, p=0.892

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

Iraqi artillery shell exploded Haley Syndrome 1
w/in 1 km
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

RR (CI) = 2.0 (0.5-8.4)
RR (CI) = 4.9 (2.2-10.9)*
RR (CI) = 0.5 (0.1-3.3)

ns

Saw explosion, suspected
chem land mine

RR (CI) = 2.2 (0.3-15.2)
RR (CI) = 5.6 (2.3-13.6)*
RR (CI) = 1.1 (0.2-7.6)

ns

Haley Syndrome 1
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

Scud missile exploded w/in Haley Syndrome 1
5 km
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

RR (CI) = 1.0 (0.2-4.5)
RR (CI) = 4.1 (0.6-29.4)
RR (CI) = 2.0 (0.5-8.4)

Iowa
1997

1,896 Iowa
GWV

Psychological stressors

Fibromyalgia symptoms

Prev diff = 3.4, p =0.003*

Ishoy
1999

686 Danish
GWV

SCUD explosion within
2 km

Gastrointestinal symptoms

ns

Kang
2002

10,423 U.S.
GWV

Sexual assault
Sexual harassment

GW-unique neurological
symptom complex

OR (CI) = 8.3 (3.9-17.9)* 
OR (CI) = 6.7 (4.7-9.6)* 

Nisenbaum
2000

1,002 U.S. Air
Force GWV

Came under attack

CMI - Mild-moderate
CMI - Severe

OR (CI) = 1.1 (0.9-1.5)
OR (CI) = 2.4 (1.3-4.3)*

OR (CI) = 0.7 (0.5-1.0)
OR (CI) = 1.2 (0.5-3.1)

Saw casualties

CMI - Mild-moderate
CMI - Severe

OR (CI) = 1.3 (0.8-2.0)
OR (CI) = 2.2 (1.0-4.6)

OR (CI) = 1.0 (0.6-1.7)
OR (CI) = 1.1 (0.4-2.8)

Appendix A-8. Psychological Stressors: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Psychological Stressors During Deployment
Study

Veterans
Studied

Nisenbaum
(cont.)

Appendix A-8. Association of Psychological Stressors with Multisymptom Illness  419

Reid
2001

Spencer
2001

3,531 U.K.
GWV

1,119 GWV
from OR, WA

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Crude (no adjustments)

Family member had
significant health event

CMI - Mild-moderate
CMI - Severe

OR (CI) = 1.7 (1.0-2.8)
OR (CI) = 2.8 (1.2-6.5)*

OR (CI) = 1.6 (0.9-2.9)
OR (CI) = 2.2 (0.8-5.7)

Change in marital status

CMI - Mild-moderate
CMI - Severe

OR (CI) = 1.1 (0.7-1.6)
OR (CI) = 1.7 (0.8-3.7)

OR (CI) = 0.9 (0.6-1.5)
OR (CI) = 1.3 (0.6-3.2)

Dismembered bodies
Maimed soldiers
Witnessed death
SCUD explosion
Small arms fire
Artillery close by

CFS

OR (CI) = 1.9 (1.1-3.4)*
OR (CI) = 2.1 (1.3-3.5)*
OR (CI) = 2.3 (1.4-3.6)*
OR (CI) = 2.2 (1.4-3.6)*
OR (CI) = 1.3 (0.8-2.1)
OR (CI) = 1.8 (1.2-2.9)*

OR (CI) = 1.6 (0.8-3.0)
OR (CI) = 2.0 (1.2-3.6)*
OR (CI) = 2.2 (1.3-3.8)*
OR (CI) = 2.6 (1.5-4.6)*
OR (CI) = 1.3 (0.8-2.3)
OR (CI) = 2.4 (1.4-4.1)*

Dismembered bodies
Maimed soldiers
Witnessed death
SCUD explosion
Small arms fire
Artillery nearby

MCS

OR (CI) = 4.5 (1.8-11.4)*
OR (CI) = 3.8 (1.9-7.6)*
OR (CI) = 2.3 (1.3-4.1)*
OR (CI) = 1.8 (1.0-3.4)
OR (CI) = 2.1 (1.2-3.7)*
OR (CI) = 2.8 (1.5-5.0)*

OR (CI) = 4.2 (1.6-11.0)*
OR (CI) = 3.2 (1.6-6.5)*
OR (CI) = 2.2 (1.2-4.2)*
OR (CI) = 1.6 (0.8-3.0)
OR (CI) = 2.1 (1.1-3.9)*
OR (CI) = 2.7 (1.4-5.0)*

CES subscore
(continuous)

CMI
GWUI (study-defined)

OR (CI) = 1.1 (1.0-1.2)*
OR (CI) = 1.1 (1.0-1.1)*

CES: low-mod stress
mod-heavy stress

GWUI (study-defined)

Heard SCUD alarms
1-5 times
6-30 times
31+ times

CMI

OR± (CI) = 1.3 (0.7-2.5)
OR± (CI) = 2.4 (0.8-7.6)

OR (CI) = 1.3 (0.5-3.3)
OR (CI) = 1.6 (0.8-3.2)
OR (CI) = 1.5 (0.8-2.9)

420  Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

Appendix A-8. Psychological Stressors: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Psychological Stressors During Deployment
Study

Veterans
Studied

Spencer
(cont)

Suadicani
1999

Unwin
1999

667 Danish
GWV

2,735 U.K.
GWV

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Heard SCUD alarms
1-5 times
6-30 times
31 + times

GWUI (study defined)

Saw SCUD detonate
1-5 times
6-30 times
31 + times

CMI

Saw SCUD detonate
1-5 times
6-30 times
31 + times

GWUI (study-defined)

Crude (no adjustments)

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

OR (CI) = 1.3 (0.6-2.8)
OR (CI) = 1.3 (0.7-2.4)
OR (CI) = 1.4 (0.8-2.5)

OR (CI) = 1.1 (0.6-2.1)
OR (CI) = 1.9 (0.9-3.9)
OR (CI) = 2.3 (0.8-6.0)

Witnessed combat
Neurological symptoms
Saw assaults on civilians
Saw wounded/ dead
Threatened with arms
Saw colleagues threatened
or shot at
Was shot at
Pointed gun/shot other
Dismembered bodies
CMI
Maimed soldiers
Combat injury
Witness death
SCUD exploded w/in 1 mile
Under small arms fire

OR (CI) = 1.0 (0.6-1.8)
OR (CI) = 1.9 (1.0-3.6)
OR (CI) = 1.6 (0.7 - 4.1)
trend test, p < 0.01*
trend test, p < 0.01*
trend test, p < 0.05*
trend test, p < 0.01*
trend test, p < 0.001*

ns

trend test, p < 0.01*
trend test, p < 0.001*
OR (CI) = 2.0 (1.7-2.3)*
OR (CI) = 1.7 (1.5-2.0)*
OR (CI) = 2.9 (2.1-4.2)*
OR (CI) = 1.6 (1.4-1.9)*
OR (CI) = 1.6 (1.4-1.9)*
OR (CI) = 1.5 (1.3-1.7)*

Appendix A-8. Psychological Stressors: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Psychological Stressors During Deployment
Study

Veterans
Studied

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Crude (no adjustments)

Appendix A-8. Association of Psychological Stressors with Multisymptom Illness  421

Wolfe
1998

2,119 GWV

High combat exposure
score

High symptom endorsement

OR (CI) = 3.2 (2.3-4.4)*

Wolfe
2002

945 U.S.
Army GWV

Score > 6 on expanded
combat exposure scale

CMI - Mild-moderate

OR (CI) = 1.5 (1.1-2.1)*

CMI - Severe
CMI - Mild, mod, severe

OR (CI) = 1.5 (1.1-2.1)*

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

ns

ns

_________________________________________________
GW = Gulf War; GWV = Gulf War veterans; GWI = Gulf War illness; GWUI = Gulf War unexplained illness; CMI = chronic multisymptom illness;464 CFS = chronic fatigue syndrome;
MCS = multiple chemical sensitivity; MSE = Military Service Experience score; CES = Keane Combat Exposure Scale; DVA = Department of Veterans Affairs;
OR = odds ratio; RR = risk ratio; corr = correlation; prev diff = prevalence difference; CI = 95% confidence interval; p = p value; sign. = statistically significant; ns = not significant;
* statistically significant; ± limited number of selected exposures in model;  calculated from reported data

422  Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

Appendix A-9. Pyridostigmine Bromide: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Use of Pyridostigmine Bromide

Appendix A-9. Association of Pyridostigmine Bromide with Multisymptom Illness  423

Study

Veterans
Studied

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Boyd
2003

978 GWV in
GW Registry

Days taking any PB
Days taking > 3 PB pills

High symptom vs. low
symptom groups

Cherry
2001

7,971 U.K.
GWV

Days used NAPs

Overall symptom severity

sign. corr; p < 0.001*

Side effects from NAPs

Overall symptom severity
Peripheral symptoms
Gastrointestinal symptoms
Peripheral neuropathy
Widespread pain

sign. corr; p < 0.001*
sign. corr; p < 0.001*
sign. corr; p < 0.001*
OR = 1.4, p < 0.001*
OR = 1.5, p < 0.001*

Crude (no adjustments)

3,831 U.S.
Took PB tablets
Navy Seabees

GWI (study defined)

OR (CI) = 3.0 (2.4-3.7)*

Haley
1997

249 Seabees,
24th NMCB

Took PB tablets

Haley Syndrome 1
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

RR (CI) = 0.6 (0.1-4.3)
undefined
RR (CI) = 0.6 (0.1-2.1)

Scale of advanced side
effects of PB

Haley Syndrome 1
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

trend test, p = 0.413
trend test, p < 0.001*
trend test, p < 0.001*

Scale of mild side effects
of PB

Haley Syndrome 1
Haley Syndrome 2
Haley Syndrome 3

trend test, p= 0.670
trend test, p= 0.003*
trend test, p= 0.067

PB tablets used

Cognitive symptoms
Fibromyalgia symptoms

Prev diff = 12.0, p < 0.001*
Prev diff = 16.4, p < 0.001*

1,896 Iowa
GWV

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

p = 0.07
p = 0.08

Gray
2002

Iowa
1997

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

OR (CI) = 1.4 (1.1-1.9)*

p± < 0.001*
p± < 0.001*

ns

424  Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

Appendix A-9. Pyridostigmine Bromide: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Use of Pyridostigmine Bromide
Study

Veterans
Studied

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Crude (no adjustments)

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Kelsall
2004

1,456
Any PB
Australian GWV 1-80 PB tablets
81-180 PB tablets
>180 PB tablets
Dose-response

Number of symptoms

ARM (CI) = 1.4 (1.2-1.5)*
ARM (CI) = 1.3 (1.1-1.5)*
ARM (CI) = 1.4 (1.2-1.6)*
ARM (CI) = 1.4 (1.2-1.7)*
ARM (CI) = 1.1 (1.1-1.2)*

Kelsall
2005

1,424
Any PB
Australian GWV 1-80 PB tablets
81-180 PB tablets
>180 PB tablets
Dose-response

Number of neurological
symptoms

ARM (CI) = 1.5 (1.2-1.8)*
ARM (CI) = 1.4 (1.0-1.8)
ARM (CI) = 1.6 (1.2-2.1)*
ARM (CI) = 1.6 (1.2-2.1)*
ARM (CI) = 1.2 (1.1-1.3)*

Nisenbaum
2000

1,002 U.S. Air
Force GWV

CMI - Mild-moderate
CMI - Severe

Proctor
1998

252 U.S. GWV Anti-nerve gas pills

Dermatological symptoms
Gastrointestinal symptoms
Musculoskeletal symptoms
Neurological symptoms
Neuro-psych symptoms
Psychiatric symptoms

Reid
2001

3,531 U.K.
GWV

CFS
MCS

OR (CI) = 1.6 (0.8-3.2)
OR (CI) = 1.5 (0.6-3.5)

Schumm
2005

650 Ohio GWV Amount of PB taken
reservists

CMI
GWI (Kansas definition)

sign.*
sign.*

Took PB to protect from
nerve gas

PB

OR (CI) = 1.4 (1.1-1.8)*
OR (CI) = 3.0 (1.7-5.2)*

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

OR (CI) = 1.6 (1.1-2.2)*
OR (CI) = 2.9 (1.4-6.1)*
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
OR (CI) = 1.5 (0.6-3.4)
OR (CI) = 1.6 (0.6-4.0)

Appendix A-9. Pyridostigmine Bromide: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Use of Pyridostigmine Bromide
Study

Veterans
Studied

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Crude (no adjustments)

Spencer
2001

1,119 GWV
from OR, WA

< 21 PB pills
22+ PB pills

CMI

OR (CI) = 3.2 (1.7-5.8)*
OR (CI) = 4.4 (2.1-9.4)*

< 21 PB pills
22+ PB pills

GWUI (study-defined)

OR (CI) = 2.2 (1.3-3.8)*
OR (CI) = 3.8 (2.0-7.4)*

Appendix A-9. Association of Pyridostigmine Bromide with Multisymptom Illness  425

Unwin
1999

2,735 U.K.
GWV

PB

CMI

Wolfe
2002

945 U.S.
Army GWV

1-21 PB pills

CMI - Mild-moderate
CMI - Severe
CMI - Mild, mod, severe

OR (CI) = 1.9 (1.4-2.7)*
OR (CI) = 2.3 (1.6-3.3)*

CMI - Mild-moderate
CMI -Severe
CMI - Mild, mod, severe

OR (CI) = 2.5 (1.6-3.9)*
OR (CI) = 3.7 (2.4-5.6)*

>21 PB pills

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

OR± (CI) = 1.6 (0.9–2.9)
OR± (CI) = 2.2 (1.0–4.6)*
OR (CI) = 2.6 (2.2-3.1)*

OR (CI) = 1.4 (1.0-1.9)*

OR (CI) = 2.1 (1.4-3.1)*

_________________________________________________
PB = pyridostigmine bromide; NAPs = nerve agent pretreatment sets; GW = Gulf War; GWV = Gulf War veterans; GWI = Gulf War illness; GWUI = Gulf War unexplained illness;
CMI = chronic multisymptom illness;464 CFS = chronic fatigue syndrome; MCS = multiple chemical sensitivity; OR = odds ratio; RR = risk ratio; corr = correlation; prev diff = prevalence difference;
CI = 95% confidence interval; p = p value; sign. = statistically significant; ns = not significant;
* statistically significant; ± limited number of selected exposures in model

426  Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

Appendix A-10. Sand-related Variables: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Sand Exposures During Deployment
Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

Study

Veterans Studied Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Crude (no adjustments)

Gray
1999

527 U.S.
Navy Seabees

Sandstorms

23 symptoms

7 of 23 symptoms sign.;
ORs 2.3-4.1

Gray
2002

3,831 U.S.
Navy Seabees

Sandstorms

GWI (study-defined)

OR (CI) = 2.6 (2.1-3.3)*

OR (CI) = 1.7 (1.3-2.3)*

Ishoy
1999

686 Danish
GWV

Sand or dust storm

Gastrointestinal symptoms

trend test, p < 0.01

ns

Sandbagging/digging

CMI - Mild-moderate
CMI -Severe

OR (CI) = 1.8 (1.4-2.4)*
OR (CI) = 3.1 (1.7-5.5)*

OR (CI) = 1.4 (1.0-1.9)
OR (CI) = 1.5 (0.7-2.9)

Walk/hike in sand

CMI - Mild-moderate
CMI -Severe

OR (CI) = 1.6 (1.1-2.4)*
OR (CI) = 6.4 (1.5-26.7)*

OR (CI) = 1.1 (0.7-1.7)
OR (CI) = 2.6 (0.6-11.7)

Sand or dust storm

Neurological symptoms

trend test, p < 0.01*

ns

Nisenbaum 1,002 U.S. Air
2000
Force GWV
Appendix A-10. Association of Sand with Multisymptom Illness  427

Suadicani
1999

667 Danish
GWV

_________________________________________________
GW = Gulf War; GWV = Gulf War veterans; GWI = Gulf War illness; CMI = chronic multisymptom illness;464 OR = odds ratio; CI = 95% confidence interval; sign. = statistically significant;
ns = not significant; * statistically significant

428  Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

Appendix A-11. Solvents: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Solvent Exposures During Deployment
Study

Veterans
Studied

Iowa
1997

Appendix A-11. Association of Solvents with Multisymptom Illness  429

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Crude (no adjustments)

1,896 Iowa
GWV

Solvents/petrochemicals

Cognitive symptoms
Fibromyalgia symptoms

Prev diff = 6.6, p < 0.001*
Prev diff = 4.6, p < 0.001*

Ishoy
1999

686 Danish
GWV

Other paint, solvents or
kerosene products

Gastrointestinal symptoms

trend test, p < 0.05*

Kelsall
2005

1,424
Solvents
Australian GWV

Neurological symptoms

Reid
2001

3,531 U.K.
GWV

Other paints or solvents

CFS
MCS

OR (CI) = 1.3 (0.8-2.2)
OR (CI) = 2.2 (1.1-4.4)*

Spencer
2001

1,119 GWV
from OR, WA

Vehicle repair

CMI
GWUI (study-defined)
CMI
GWUI (study-defined)
CMI
GWUI (study-defined)
CMI
GWUI (study-defined)
CMI
GWUI (study-defined)
CMI
GWUI (study-defined)
CMI
GWUI (study-defined)
CMI
GWUI (study-defined)

OR (CI) = 3.3 (1.9-5.8)*
OR (CI) = 3.0 (1.8-4.9)*
OR (CI) = 2.7 (1.3-5.5)*
OR (CI) = 2.1 (1.1-4.1)*
OR (CI) = 2.1 (1.2-3.9)*
OR (CI) = 1.6 (1.0-2.8)
OR (CI) = 2.9 (0.9-9.2)
OR (CI) = 2.1 (0.7-6.3)
OR (CI) = 1.2 (0.6-2.2)
OR (CI) = 1.3 (0.7-2.2)
OR (CI) = 2.4 (1.3-4.2)*
OR (CI) = 2.5 (1.5-4.1)*
OR (CI) = 2.5 (1.3-4.6)*
OR (CI) = 2.5 (1.4-4.3)*
OR (CI) = 1.2 (0.5-2.9)
OR (CI) = 1.5 (0.7-3.1)

Battery repair
Generator repair
Refrig service
Electronic/ radio repair
Degreasing machinery
Cleaned hydraulic leaks
Weapons repair

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

ns

ARM (CI) = 1.8 (1.3-2.5)*

OR (CI) = 1.4 (0.8-2.5)
OR (CI) = 2.4 (1.1-5.1)*

430  Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

Appendix A-11. Solvents: Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Solvent Exposures During Deployment
Study

Veterans
Studied

Unwin
1999

2,735 U.K.
GWV

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Other paints or solvents

CMI

Crude (no adjustments)

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

OR (CI) = 1.7 (1.5-2.0)*

_________________________________________________
GW = Gulf War; GWV = Gulf War veterans; GWUI = Gulf War unexplained illness; CMI = chronic multisymptom illness;464 CFS = chronic fatigue syndrome; MCS = multiple chemical sensitivity;
OR = odds ratio; CI = 95% confidence interval; p = p value; prev diff = prevalence difference; sign. = statistically significant; ns = not significant;
* statistically significant

Appendix A-12a. Vaccines (Individual Types): Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Individual Types of Vaccines

Appendix A-12a. Association of Vaccines (Individual Types) with Multisymptom Illness  431

Study

Veterans
Studied

Boyd
2003

978 GWV in
GW Registry

Goss Gilroy
1998

Gray
1999

Health Outcome

Botulism
Meningococcus
Anthrax
Plague
Typhoid
IgG

High symptom vs.
low symptom groups

OR = 1.8, p = 0.02*
OR = 1.6, p = 0.10
OR = 1.7, p = 0.03*
OR = 1.3, ns
OR = 1.4, ns
OR = 1.2, ns

3,113
Non-routine immunizations
Canadian GWV (anthrax, plague)

Cognitive symptoms
Chronic fatigue symptoms
Fibromyalgia symptoms

OR (CI) = 1.3 (1.1-1.5)*
OR (CI) = 1.9 (1.5-2.5)*
ns

527 U.S.
Anthrax
Navy Seabees
IgG

23 individual symptoms

12 of 23 symptoms sign.;
ORs 2.0-4.5
11 of 23 symptoms sign.;
ORs 2.1-8.1
16 of 23 symptoms sign.;
ORs 2.7-5.2

GWI (study-defined)

OR (CI) = 3.6 (2.5-5.2)*
OR (CI) = 4.9 (3.5-7.0)*
OR (CI) = 3.7 (2.6-5.4)*
OR (CI) = 3.2 (2.2-4.8)*
OR (CI) = 1.9 (1.4-2.5)*
OR (CI) = 2.3 (1.5-3.6)*

Botulism

Gray
2002

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Vaccine/Shot Assessed

3,831 U.S.
Meningococcus
Navy Seabees Botulism
Anthrax
Plague
IgG
Typhoid

Crude (no adjustments)

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

OR (CI) = 1.3 (1.0-1.6)*
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns

432  Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

Appendix A-12a. Vaccines (Individual Types): Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Individual Types of Vaccines
Study
Hotopf
2000

Veterans
Studied

Vaccine/Shot Assessed

923 U.K. GWV Received predeployment
with vaccine
Anthrax
records
Plague
Pertussis
Tetanus
Cholera
Hepatitis A
Hepatitis B
Polio
Yellow fever
Typhoid

Health Outcome

Crude (no adjustments)

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

CMI
OR (CI) = 1.3 (0.8-2.0)
OR (CI) = 1.2 (0.6-2.2)
OR (CI) = 1.0 (0.5-1.7)
OR (CI) = 0.9 (0.6-1.3)
OR (CI) = 0.9 (0.6-1.2)
OR (CI) = 1.3 (0.8-2.1)
OR (CI) = 0.8 (0.5-1.3)
OR (CI) = 0.7 (0.5-1.2)
OR (CI) = 1.3 (0.9-1.9)
OR (CI) = 1.0 (0.7-1.4)

Received during deployment CMI
Anthrax
Plague
Pertussis
Tetanus
Cholera
Hepatitis A
Hepatitis B
Polio
Yellow fever
Typhoid
Kang
2002

10,423 U.S.
GWV

Botulism vaccine

GW-unique neurological
symptom complex

Mahan
2004

11,441 U.S.
GWV

Anthrax vaccine
(verified by DOD records)

10 severe symptoms

OR (CI) = 1.3 (0.9-2.0)
OR (CI) = 0.9 (0.6-1.4)
OR (CI) = 1.3 (0.9-2.0)
OR (CI) = 2.7 (1.0-7.2)*
OR (CI) = 2.9 (1.0-7.9)*
OR (CI) = 1.3 (0.5-3.2)
OR (CI) = 0.7 (0.3-1.4)
OR (CI) = 1.2 (0.3-4.3)
OR (CI) = 0.8 (0.2-3.7)
OR (CI) = 0.7 (0.3-2.0)
OR (CI) = 3.5 (2.7-4.7)* 

5 of 10 symptoms sign.;
ORs =1.5-1.6

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

Appendix A-12a. Vaccines (Individual Types): Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Individual Types of Vaccines
Study

Veterans
Studied

Schumm
2005

Vaccine/Shot Assessed

Appendix A-12a. Association of Vaccines (Individual Types) with Multisymptom Illness  433

Health Outcome

Crude (no adjustments)

650 Ohio GWV Anthrax
reservists

GWI (Kansas definition)

sign.*

Unwin
1999

2,735 U.K.
GWV

Anthrax
Plague
Pertussis
Any biological vaccine
Hepatitis A
Hepatitis B
Yellow fever
Typhoid
Poliomyelitis
Cholera
Tetanus
Any routine vaccine

CMI

Wolfe
2002

945 U.S.
Army GWV

Anthrax

CMI - Mild-moderate
CMI - Severe
CMI - Mild, mod, severe

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

OR (CI) = 1.5 (1.3-1.7)*
OR (CI) = 1.3 (1.1-1.6)*
OR (CI) = 1.1 (0.9-1.4)
OR (CI) = 1.5 (1.3-1.7)*
OR (CI) = 1.1 (0.8-1.5)
OR (CI) = 1.0 (0.8-1.3)
OR (CI) = 1.3 (1.1-1.7)*
OR (CI) = 1.0 (0.8-1.3)
OR (CI) = 1.2 (1.0-1.5)
OR (CI) = 1.1 (0.9-1.4)
OR (CI) = 1.3 (1.1-1.5)*
OR (CI) = 1.2 (1.1-1.4)*
OR (CI) = 1.5 (1.1-2.1)*
OR (CI) = 1.9 (1.4-2.6)*
OR (CI) = 1.5 (1.1-2.0)*

_________________________________________________
GW = Gulf War; GWV = Gulf War veterans; CMI = chronic multisymptom illness;464 OR = odds ratio; CI = 95% confidence interval; sign. = statistically significant; ns = not significant;
* statistically significant;  calculated from reported data

434  Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

Appendix A-12b. Vaccines (Number Received): Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Number of Vaccines Received

Appendix A-12b. Association of Vaccines (Number Received) with Multisymptom Illness  435

Study

Veterans
Studied

Cherry
2001

7,971 U.K.
GWV

Hotopf
2000

923 U.K. GWV Received predeployment
with vaccine
0/1 vaccine
records
2 vaccines
3 vaccines
4 vaccines
5+ vaccines

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Number of inoculations

Overall symptom severity
Peripheral symptoms

1,456
Any immunization
Australian GWV 1-4 immunizations
5-9 immunizations
10+ immunizations
>5 in one week
Dose response

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

OR = 1.0
OR (CI) = 1.0 (0.6-1.6)
OR (CI) = 0.8 (0.5-1.4)
OR (CI) = 1.3 (0.8-2.2)
OR (CI) = 1.1 (0.6-2.0)
trend test, p = 0.38

OR = 1.0
OR (CI) = 2.2 (1.3-3.7)*
OR (CI) = 2.4 (1.4-4.0)*
OR (CI) = 2.2 (1.4-3.4)*
OR (CI) = 5.0 (2.5-9.8)*
trend test, p < 0.001
Number of symptoms

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

sign. corr; p < 0.001*
sign. corr; p < 0.001*

CMI

Received during deployment
0/1 vaccine
2 vaccines
3 vaccines
4 vaccines
5+ vaccines

Kelsall
2004

Crude (no adjustments)

ARM (CI) = 1.0 (0.9-1.2)
ARM (CI) = 0.9 (0.7-1.0)
ARM (CI) = 1.0 (0.9-1.2)
ARM (CI) = 1.3 (1.1-1.6)*
ARM (CI) = 1.1 (1.0-1.2)
ARM (CI) = 1.0 (1.0-1.1)*

436  Results from Studies of Gulf War Veterans

Appendix A-12b. Vaccines (Number Received): Association with Symptoms and Multisymptom Illness in Studies of Gulf War Veterans
Association of Health Outcomes with Number of Vaccines Received
Study

Veterans
Studied

Exposure Assessed

Health Outcome

Kelsall
2005

1,424
Any immunization
Australian GWV 1-4 immunizations
5-9 immunizations
10+ immunizations
>5 in one week
Dose response

Number of neurological
symptoms

Unwin
1999

2,735 U.K.
GWV

All veterans
1-2 vaccinations
3-6 vaccinations
7+ vaccinations

CMI

Veterans with shot records
1-2 vaccinations
3-6 vaccinations
7+ vaccinations

CMI

Crude (no adjustments)

Adjusted only for military,
demographic variables

Adjusted for other
deployment exposures

ARM (CI) = 1.1 (0.8-1.5)
ARM (CI) = 0.8 (0.6-1.1)
ARM (CI) = 1.1 (0.8-1.5)
ARM (CI) = 1.5 (1.1-2.3)*
ARM (CI) = 1.1 (0.8-1.5)
ARM (CI) = 1.1 (1.0-1.1)*

OR (CI) = 0.9 (0.7-1.2)
OR (CI) = 1.2 (1.0-1.4)
OR (CI) = 1.8 (1.5-2.2)*
trend test, p < 0.001
OR (CI) = 1.2 (0.7-2.0)
OR (CI) = 1.1 (0.8-1.6)
OR (CI) = 1.9 (1.3-2.8)*
trend test, p < 0.001

_________________________________________________
GW = Gulf War; GWV = Gulf War veterans; CMI = chronic multisymptom illness;464 OR = odds ratio; CI = 95% confidence interval; ARM = adjusted ratio of means; p = p value;
sign. = statistically significant; ns = not significant;
* statistically significant

| Appendix B

Charter of the Research Advisory Committee
on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses

438  Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses

| Committee Charter
DEPARTMENT OF VETERANS AFFAIRS
CHARTER OF THE
RESEARCH ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON

GULF WAR VETERANS’ ILLNESSES

A.

OFFICIAL DESIGNATION: Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses (RAC-GWVI).

B. OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF ACTIVITY: The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) Research Advisory
Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses shall provide advice and make recommendations to the Secretary of
Veterans Affairs on proposed research plans and strategies related to understanding and treating the health
consequences of military service in the Southwest Asia theater of operations during the 1990-1991 Gulf War
(Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm). The Committee shall not conduct scientific research or review
research proposals submitted to VA prior to funding. VA may, however, request individual Committee members with
appropriate scientific expertise to participate in the review of such proposals.
The guiding principle for the work of the Committee shall be the premise that the fundamental goal of Gulf Warrelated government research, either basic or applied, is to ultimately improve the health of ill Gulf War veterans, and
that the choice and success of research efforts shall be judged accordingly. The Committee shall assess the overall
effectiveness of government research to answer central questions on the nature, causes, and treatments for health
consequences of military service in the Southwest Asia theater of operations during the1990-1991 Gulf War.
The Committee shall meet in public session to review all relevant funded research, investigations, and processes for
funding research conducted previously and assess their methods, results, and implications. The Committee shall
review all proposed Federal research plans, initiatives, procurements, grant programs, and other activities in support
of research projects on health consequences of military service in the Southwest Asia theater of operations during
the 1990-1991 Gulf War. The Committee, consistent with law, shall have access to all VA documents and other
sources of information it finds relevant to such review.
C. PERIOD OF TIME NECESSARY FOR THE COMMITTEE TO CARRY OUT ITS PURPOSE: The Committee
was established in compliance with statutory instructions contained in § 104 of Public Law 105-368. It has no
termination date.
D. OFFICIAL TO WHOM THE COMMITTEE REPORTS: The Committee shall report to the Secretary of
Veterans Affairs.
E. OFFICE RESPONSIBLE FOR PROVIDING THE NECESSARY SUPPORT TO THE COMMITTEE: The
Veterans Health Administration of the Department of Veterans Affairs will provide support for the Committee. A VA
employee shall be the Designated Federal Officer. Technical support for the Committee shall be provided by a staff
that reports to the Committee chair, who may appoint a technical director for the staff to supervise its operation. Staff
members may be VA employees, employees of other government agencies, or independent agents employed as
temporary VA employees.
F. DUTIES OF THE COMMITTEE: The Committee shall provide to the Secretary of Veterans Affairs, not later
than December 1 of each year, an annual report summarizing its activities for the preceding year. The Committee is
authorized to develop additional reports and recommendations regarding relevant research. During its review of
such research and in compliance with governing law, the Committee shall have access to all VA documents and

Committee Charter  439

other information sources it finds relevant to such review. Recommendations contained within a formal Committee
report shall be submitted to the Secretary and other appropriate officials, as directed by the Secretary. All such
reports shall be approved by the Committee, meeting in open public session, prior to submission to the Secretary.
The Secretary shall, to the extent provided by law, seek support from other Federal departments and agencies to
provide the Committee with information and research findings it may require for purposes of carrying out its functions.
To augment the expertise of the Committee, the Secretary may, at the request of the chair of the Committee, contract
through VA for the services of non-governmental consultants who may prepare reports and background papers or
prepare other materials for consideration by the Committee, as appropriate.
The Committee shall be comprised of members of the general public, including Gulf War veterans, representatives of
such veterans, and members of the medical and scientific communities representing appropriate disciplines such as,
but not limited to, biomedicine, epidemiology, immunology, environmental health, neurology, and toxicology.
Members shall be appointed for two- or three-year terms. The Secretary may renew the terms of members. The
Secretary shall appoint the chair of the Committee. The term of office for the chair shall be two years, also
renewable by the Secretary. The Committee will be composed of approximately fifteen (15) members. Several
members may be Regular Government Employees (RGE), but the majority of the Committee’s membership will be
Special Government Employees (SGE).
The Committee may establish subcommittees to carry out specific projects or assignments. The Committee chair
shall notify the Secretary, through the Designated Federal Officer for the Committee, upon the establishment of any
subcommittee, including its function, membership and estimated duration.
The Secretary may establish a panel of experts representing appropriate medical and scientific disciplines to assist
the Committee in its work. Panelists may be called on by the Secretary for advice and consultation, and may advise
the Committee on research or conduct other appropriate activities for the Committee, at the request of the Committee
chair. Panelists shall report directly to the chair or such Committee members designated by the chair, but they shall
not be members of the Committee. Panelists will be nominated by the Committee chair and appointed by the
Secretary.
G. ESTIMATED ANNUAL OPERATING COSTS IN DOLLARS AND STAFF-YEARS: The estimated annual cost
for operating the Committee and its support staff is $400,000 and 4 FTE. All members will receive travel expenses
and a per diem allowance in accordance with the Federal Travel Regulation for any travel made in connection with
their participation in Committee meetings.
H. ESTIMATED NUMBER AND FREQUENCY OF MEETINGS: The Committee is expected to meet not less than
twice annually. Meetings of the subcommittee(s) shall be convened as necessary. The Designated Federal Officer
(DFO), a full time VA employee, will approve the schedule of Committee meetings. The DFO or a designee will be
present at all meetings, and each meeting will be conducted in accordance with an agenda approved by the DFO.
The DFO is authorized to adjourn any meeting when he or she determines it is in the public interest to do so.
I.

COMMITTEE TERMINATION DATE: None.

J.

DATE CHARTER IS FILED:

APPROVED:

_ James B. Peake, M.D._____
Secretary of Veterans Affairs

440  Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses

Date: ___05/08/08_______

| Appendix C

Members of the Research Advisory Committee
on Gulf War Veteran’s Illnesses

442  Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses

|

Committee Members

James H. Binns (Committee Chair)
Mr. Binns is former Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Policy,
and a Vietnam veteran. He is also former chairman of Parallel Design and past president of A.D.R.
Ultrasound, two medical imaging manufacturing companies which he led from startup to merger with
major corporations. He is a graduate of Stanford University and Harvard Law School.
Carrolee Barlow, MD, PhD
Dr. Barlow is Vice President of Research for BrainCells, Inc., and previously conducted neuroscience
research at the National Institutes of Health, the Salk Institute of Biological Studies, and Merck Research
Laboratories. Dr. Barlow is an expert in neuroscience and clinical applications of basic research to
neurological and neuropsychiatric diseases. She has authored numerous articles and book chapters in
areas ranging from neurogenomics to the implications of basic research for understanding genetic
diseases affecting the brain.
Floyd E. Bloom, MD
Dr. Bloom is Professor Emeritus in the Molecular and Integrative Neuroscience Department at The
Scripps Research Institute. He is a distinguished neuroscientist who pioneered the use of modern
molecular biological and database techniques in brain research. Dr. Bloom is a past president of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and a member of the National Academy
of Sciences, the Institute of Medicine, the American Philosophical Society, and the Royal Swedish
Academy of Science. He has authored or co-authored over 700 scientific articles and was Editor-in-Chief
of Science Magazine from 1995 – 2000.
Daniel J. Clauw, MD
Dr. Clauw is Assistant Dean for Clinical and Translation Research and Professor of Medicine at the
University of Michigan. He is director of the Chronic Pain and Fatigue Research Center and the Center
for the Advancement of Clinical Research. His primary research interest focuses on overlapping chronic
pain syndromes such as fibromyalgia and Gulf War illness and the role of central nervous system
dysfunction in the development of these syndromes. He leads a multidisciplinary team of collaborators
committed to identifying chronic pain syndrome risk factors and the establishment of programs aimed at
the most effective treatment and prevention of this spectrum of illnesses.
Beatrice A. Golomb, MD, PhD
Dr. Golomb is Associate Professor of Medicine and of Family and Preventive Medicine at the University
of California at San Diego, Research Associate Professor of Psychology at the University of Southern
California, and a Robert Wood Johnson Generalist Physician Faculty Scholar. Her research focuses on the
risks and benefits of medical interventions, especially cholesterol drugs, and on Gulf War veterans'
illnesses. As a RAND scientist she traveled to the Middle East on a fact finding mission related to this
issue, and has authored several RAND reports on the relation of exposures to illness in Gulf War
veterans. Dr. Golomb served as Scientific Director of the Committee in 2002 and 2003.

Committee Members  443

Joel C. Graves, DMin
Rev. Graves is a Lutheran minister, hospice chaplain and Gulf War veteran. He retired from the U.S.
Army in 1997 as a captain, after serving as enlisted for nine years and an armor officer for nine years.
During the war, he was a member of the 1st Battalion, 67th Armored Battalion, 1st "Tiger" Brigade
Independent Task Force, which took the northern part of Kuwait City. He has Gulf War illness.
Anthony Hardie
Mr. Hardie is Executive Assistant of the Wisconsin Department of Veterans Affairs where he oversees the
agency's relations with the state legislature, Congress, the media, stakeholders, and the public. He is a
Gulf War and Somalia veteran and is a former officer with the National Gulf War Resource Center. He
has worked extensively on policy issues related to Gulf War veterans' illnesses and deployment health.
He is a former Congressional staff member, a graduate of the University of Wisconsin, and the 2005
recipient of Wisconsin's Disabled American Veterans Department Distinguished Service Award.
Marguerite L. Knox, MN, NP
LTC Knox serves on the South Carolina Army National Guard's Medical Command and is a senior sales
representative for Teva Neuroscience. During the Gulf War she served with the 251st Evacuation
Hospital at King Khalid Military City, Saudi Arabia. During her tenure as Assistant Professor at the
University of South Carolina College of Nursing, she served on the Presidential Advisory Committee on
Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses (1995-1998).
William J. Meggs, MD, PhD
Dr. Meggs is Professor and Chief of the Division of Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine at
the Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University, where he also serves as Senior Vice Chair for
Academic Affairs. His research interests include the role of neurogenic inflammation in chemical
sensitivity, and the effects of low-level exposures to organophosphorous compounds. Dr. Meggs is a
fellow of the American College of Medical Toxicology and the American College of Emergency
Medicine, and served on the National Academy of Science's subcommittee on immunotoxicology.
Mary Dekker Nettleman, MD, MS
Dr. Nettleman is the Chair of the Department of Medicine at Michigan State University. She is dually
boarded in Internal Medicine and Infectious Diseases, with a Master's Degree in Preventive Medicine.
Her research focuses on disease epidemiology, with special emphasis on nosocomial infections, sexually
transmitted diseases, and early pregnancy. She has served on national committees, study sections, and
editorial boards related to infectious diseases, quality of care, and general internal medicine.
James P. O'Callaghan, PhD
Dr. O'Callaghan is Distinguished Consultant and Head of the Molecular Neurotoxicology Laboratory in
the Toxicology and Molecular Biology Branch of the Health Effects Laboratory Division at the U.S.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Prior to joining CDC, Dr. O'Callaghan founded the
molecular and cellular neurotoxicology program in the Neurotoxicology Division, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. He directs a research program dedicated
to the discovery and implementation of biomarkers of neurotoxicity.

444  Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses

Steve Smithson
Mr. Smithson is Deputy Director for Claims Services for the American Legion, where he oversees matters
related to the Veterans Benefits Administration. He served on active duty in the United States Marine
Corps from 1988-92, including a seven-month tour of duty in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait during the Gulf
War. Mr. Smithson was previously an Assistant Director for Gulf War and deployment-related issues
with the American Legion.
Lea Steele, PhD
Dr. Steele is Adjunct Associate Professor in the College of Human Ecology at Kansas State University.
She is an epidemiologist and human ecologist whose research interests focus on the study of complex
medical conditions that are difficult to diagnose and treat. Dr. Steele previously directed the Kansas
Persian Gulf War Veterans Health Initiative, a state-sponsored research and service program, and was
principal investigator of the Kansas Gulf Veterans Health Study. She served as Scientific Director of the
Committee from 2003 through early 2008.
Roberta F. White, PhD
Dr. White is Professor and Chair of the Department of Environmental Health at Boston University School
of Public Health. She is a neuropsychologist with expertise in environmental and occupational
epidemiology. Author of numerous scientific publications, her research interests include evaluation of
chronic effects of exposure to neurotoxicants, the use of imaging in behavioral toxicology, and
environmental factors that influence the development of neurodegeneration. Dr. White currently serves
as Scientific Director of the Committee.

Consultant to the Committee
Jack Melling, PhD
Dr. Melling is former Chief Executive of the U.K. Microbiological Research Authority. He was
previously Director of the Salk Institute of Biologicals Development Center, Director of the Karl
Landsteiner Institute for Vaccine Development, and a Senior Program Manager at the Battelle Memorial
Institute. He is currently a consultant to the United States Government Accountability Office.

Committee Members  445

446  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veteranss

Abbreviations and Acronyms

448  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

| Abbreviations and Acronyms
ACE

angiotensin converting enzyme

ACh

acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter

AChE

acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine

ACTH

adrenocorticotropic hormone

AFRRI

U.S. Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute

AFTAC

Air Force Technical Assistance Center, U.S. Air Force

ALS

amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, also known as Lou Gehrig’s disease

ANS

autonomic nervous system

ARM

adjusted ratio of means

ATP

adenosine triphosphate

AVA

anthrax vaccine adsorbed

AVEC

Anthrax Vaccine Expert Committee, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

AVIP

Anthrax Vaccine Immunization Program, U.S. Department of Defense

BChE

butyrylcholinesterase

BDRC

Birth Defect Research for Children

BIRLS

Beneficiary Identification and Records Locator Subsystem, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs

BT

botulinum toxoid

CAM

chemical agent monitor

CAPS

Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale

CARC

chemical agent resistant coating

CATI

computer assisted telephone interview

CBT

cognitive behavioral therapy

CBW

chemical and biological warfare agents

CCEP

Comprehensive Clinical Evaluation Program, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs

CDC

U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

CDMRP

Congressionally Directed Medical Research Program, U.S. Department of Defense

CENTCOM

Central Command, U.S. Department of Defense

CFS

chronic fatigue syndrome

CI

confidence interval

CIA

U.S. Central Intelligence Agency

CIDI

Composite International Diagnostic Interview

CMI

chronic multisymptom illness

CMV

Cytomegalovirus

CN

chloroacetophenone, a form of tear gas

CNS

central nervous system

CO

carbon monoxide

CO2

carbon dioxide

Abbreviations and Acronyms  449

corr

correlation

CPAP

Continuous Positive Airway Pressure, used to treat sleep apnea

CRH

corticotropin-releasing hormone

CS

chlorobenzylidenemalononitrile, tear gas

CT

computed tomography scan

DC

District of Columbia

DEET

N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide, an insect repellant

DEX

dexamethasone, a synthetic glucocorticoid

DFP

diiosopropylfluorophosphate

DHWG

Deployment Health Working Group, U.S. federal interagency group

DMSS

Defense Medical Surveillance System

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid

DOD

U.S. Department of Defense

DS2

decontamination solution 2

DSM-III-R

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Third Edition, Revised

DU

depleted uranium

EEG

electroencephalogram

EBV

Epstein-Barr virus

EEG

electroencephalogram

EF

edema factor, a protein in the anthrax vaccine

ELISA

Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay

EPA

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

FDA

U.S. Food and Drug Administration

FM

fibromyalgia

fMRI

functional magnetic resonance imaging

FVC

forced vital capacity

FY

fiscal year

GABA

gamma aminobutyric acid, a neurotransmitter

GAO

U.S. General Accounting Office, renamed the U.S. Government Accountability Office in 2004

GFAP

glial fibrillary acidic protein

GH

growth hormone

GIS

geographical information systems

GW

Gulf War

GWI

Gulf War illness

GWUI

Gulf War-related unexplained illness

GWV

Gulf War veterans

GWVIS

Gulf War Veterans Information System, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs

HDI

hexamethylene diisocyanate, a hardening compound in CARC paint

HHS

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

HHV

human herpes virus

450  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

HHV6

human herpes virus 6

5-HIAA

5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, a metabolite of serotonin

HIV

human immunodeficiency virus

HLA

human leukocyte antigen

1

proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy

H MRS

HPA

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

HPRT

hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase, used to assay genetic mutations

HRV

heart rate variability

HSC

Health Symptom Checklist

HSV

herpes simplex virus

5-HT

5-hydroxytryptamine, or serotonin

HVA

homovanillic acid, a dopamine metabolite

IAEA

International Atomic Energy Agency

IBS

irritable bowel syndrome

IFN

interferon

IG

Inspector General

IgE

immunoglobulin E

IgG

immunoglobulin G

IL-2

interleukin 2

IL-10

interleukin 10

IM

intramuscular

IND

investigational new drug

IOM

Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences

IP

intraperitoneal

ISG

Iraq Survey Group

IV

intravenous

JP-4, JP-5, JP-8

jet propulsion fuel types 4, 5, and 8

KKMC

King Khalid Military City, Saudi Arabia

KLH

keyhole limpet hemocyanin

km

kilometer

KS GWI

Kansas case definition for Gulf War illness

L

leucine, an amino acid

LD50

dosage that is lethal to 50 percent of exposed animals

LF

lethal factor, a protein in the anthrax vaccine

LSD

lysergic acid diethylamide, a hallucinogenic drug

M

methionine, an amino acid

M1, M2, M3

types of acetylcholine muscarinic receptors

MAP

Medical Assessment Program, U.K. Ministry of Defence

MAVERIC

Massachusetts Veterans Epidemiology Research and Information Center (VA)

MBPI

Michigan Biological Products Institute

Abbreviations and Acronyms  451

MCS

multiple chemical sensitivity

MDA

malondialdehyde

MDPH

Michigan Department of Public Health

2ME

ethylene glycolmonomethyl ether, a solvent

MEG

magnetoencephalography

MF59

a vaccine adjuvant that contains squalene

MHPG

3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol

MOD

Ministry of Defence, U.K.

MOPP

Mission Oriented Protective Posture, protective garments worn at different levels of chemical threat

MPTP

1-methyl 4-phenyl 1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine

MRI

magnetic resonance imagining

MRS

magnetic resonance spectroscopy

mRNA

messenger ribonucleic acid

MS

multiple sclerosis

NAA/Cr

N-acetyl-aspartate/creatine ratio

NADH

nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

NAPPs

nerve agent pyridostigmine pretreatment sets

NAPs

nerve agent pretreatment sets

NAS

The National Academy of Sciences

NATO

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NBC

nuclear, biological, and chemical

NCO

noncommissioned officer

NHRC

Naval Health Research Center, U.S. Navy

NIH

National Institutes of Health

NK cells

natural killer cells

NMH

neurally mediated hypotension

NOx

oxides of nitrogen

NTE

neuropathy target esterase

O3

ozone

ODS

Operation Desert Storm

OEF

Operation Enduring Freedom

OIF

Operation Iraqi Freedom

OP

organophosphate

OPIDN

organophosphate induced delayed neuropathy

OR

odds ratio, a measure of association between a risk factor and health outcome

ORD

Office of Research and Development, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs

OSAGWI

Office of the Special Assistant to the Deputy Secretary of Defense for Gulf War Illnesses

p

p value, a test of statistical significance

PA

protective antigen, immunogenic component of the anthrax vaccine

PAC

Presidential Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses

452  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans

PAHs

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

2-PAM

2-pralidoxine chloride, used as an antidote following nerve agent exposure

PB

pyridostigmine bromide

PBMC

peripheral blood mononuclear cells

PCR

polymerase chain reaction

PET

positron emission tomography

PGVCB

Persian Gulf Veterans Coordinating Board

PL

public law

PM10

particulate matter, 10 microns or smaller

PON1

paraoxonase

Prev diff

prevalence difference

PSOB

Presidential Special Oversight Board for Department of Defense Investigations of Chemical and
Biological Incidents

PTSD

post traumatic stress disorder

Q

glutamine, an amino acid

R

arginine, an amino acid

RAC-GWVI

Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses

RAND

RAND National Defense Research Institute

RCT

randomized, controlled trial

REM

rapid eye movement, a stage in the sleep cycle

RFA

Request for Applications

RFP

Request for Proposals

ROS

reactive oxygen species

RR

risk ratio, a measure of association between a risk factor and health outcome

SCID

Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R

SCUD

Subsonic Cruise Unarmed Decoy

SF36

Medical Outcomes Study Short Form Survey

SF36 PCS

Physical component score of the Medical Outcomes Study Short Form Survey

sign.

statistically significant

SIU

Special Investigation Unit on Gulf War Illnesses, U.S. Senate

SO2

sulfur dioxide

SOx

oxides of sulfur

SPECT

single photon emission tomography

SR

self-reported

SRI

Stanford Research Institute

SSG

Staff Sergeant (U.S. Army)

SSgt

Staff Sergeant (U.S. Air Force)

subQ

subcutaneous

TCPs

tricresyl phosphates

Th1

T-helper cells associated with cell-mediated immunity and phagocyte-dependent inflammation

Abbreviations and Acronyms  453

Th2

T-helper cells associated with humoral immunity and allergy

TNF

tumor necrosis factor

TSPs

total suspended particulates

U.K.

United Kingdom

U.N.

United Nations

UNSCOM

United Nations Special Commission on Iraq

USACHPPM

U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine (formerly USAEHA)

USAEHA

U.S. Army Environmental Hygiene Agency

USAMRMC

U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command

UTSW

University of Texas Southwestern Medical School

VA

U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs

VAERS

Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System

VAMC

VA Medical Center

VBA

Veterans Benefits Administration, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs

VHA

Veterans Health Administration, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs

VHI

Veterans Health Initiative, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs

VOCs

volatile organic compounds

VZV

varicella zoster virus

WMD

weapons of mass destruction

WRAIR

Walter Reed Army Institute of Research

WRIISC

War Related Injury and Illness Study Center, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs

454  Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans