Contacts Between Police and the Public, 2005 Report

2011 Police Public Contact Survey OMB Supporting Statement 
Attachment 3 
Contacts between Police and Public, 2005 

U.S. Department of Justice
Office of Justice Programs

Bureau of Justice Statistics

Special Report
April 2007, NCJ 215243

Contacts between Police and the
Public, 2005
By Matthew R. Durose
Erica L. Smith
and Patrick A. Langan, Ph.D.
BJS Statisticians
An estimated 19% of U.S. residents age 16 or older had a
face-to-face contact with a police officer in 2005, a
decrease from 21% of residents who had contact with
police in 2002. Contact between police and the public was
more common among males, whites, and younger residents. Overall, about 9 out of 10 persons who had contact
with police in 2005 felt the police acted properly.
Of the 43.5 million persons who had face-to-face contact
with police in 2005, 29% had more than one contact. The
most common reason for contact with police in both 2002
and 2005 involved a driver in a traffic stop. Other frequent
reasons for contact included reporting a crime to police or
being involved in a traffic accident.
Reason for contact
Traffic-related contacts
Driver during traffic stop
Passenger during traffic stop
Traffic accident
Reported problem to police
Other reasons

Percent of all contacts
2002
2005
53%
37
3
13
26
21

56%
41
3
12
24
20

Nearly 18 million persons — or 41% of all contacts in 2005
— indicated that their most recent contact with police was
as a driver in a traffic stop. This represented about 8.8% of
drivers in the United States, a percentage unchanged from
2002. Stopped drivers reported speeding as the most common reason for being pulled over in 2005. Approximately
86% of stopped drivers felt they were pulled over for a legitimate reason.
In both 2002 and 2005, white, black, and Hispanic drivers
were stopped by police at similar rates, while blacks and
Hispanics were more likely than whites to be searched by
police. About 5% of all stopped drivers were searched by

White, black, and Hispanic drivers were stopped by
police at similar rates; blacks and Hispanics were
searched by police at higher rates than whites
Race/Hispanic
origin of resident
Total
White
Black/African
American
Hispanic/Latino

Percent of drivers
stopped by police
2002
2005
8.8%
8.8

8.8%
8.9

9.2
8.6

8.1
8.9

Percent of stopped
drivers searched
by police
2002
2005
5.0%
3.5
10.2
11.4

4.8%
3.6
9.5
8.8

police during a traffic stop. Police found evidence of criminal wrong-doing (such as drugs, illegal weapons, or other
evidence of a possible crime) in 11.6% of searches in 2005.
Police issued tickets to more than half of all stopped drivers
and arrested about 2.4% of drivers. Male drivers were 3
times more likely than female drivers to be arrested, and
black drivers were twice as likely as white drivers to be
arrested. Drivers stopped for speeding (71%) or for a seatbelt violation (74%) were more likely to be ticketed than
drivers stopped for other reasons, such as an illegal turn or
lane change (58%), a record check (34%), or a vehicle
defect (32%).
Of the 43.5 million persons who had contact with police in
2005, an estimated 1.6% had force used or threatened
against them during their most recent contact, a rate relatively unchanged from 2002 (1.5%). In both 2002 and 2005,
blacks and Hispanics experienced police use of force at
higher rates than whites. Of persons who had force used
against them in 2005, an estimated 83% felt the force was
excessive.
These findings are based on the Police-Public Contact Survey (PPCS), which documents contacts between police
and the public age 16 or older, including details about the
most recent contact during the year.

Face-to-face contacts with police were more common
among males, whites, and younger residents
Males (21.1%) were more likely than females (17.2%) to
have contact with police in 2005 (table 1). Whites (20.2%)
experienced contact with police officers at higher rates than
blacks (16.5%) and Hispanics (15.8%). These differences
are consistent with findings from the 2002 PPCS.
Whites made up 71% of the U.S. population age 16 or older
but 76% of persons who had a police contact in 2005.
Black residents age 16 or older made up about the same
percentage of persons having police contact (10%) as their
percentage of the U.S. population in 2005 (11%).
In general, younger persons had higher rates of contact
with police than older persons. Persons ages 18 to 24 had
the highest percentage of contact with police (29.3%) in
2005, while persons 65 or older had the lowest (8.3%). The
2002 survey also found that younger residents were more
likely than older residents to have contact with police.

Table 1. Percent of U.S. population who had contact with
police in 2002 and 2005, by demographic characteristics
Characteristic
of resident

Percent of U.S. population age 16 or
older who had contact with police
2002
2005

Total

21.0%

19.1%

Gender
Male
Female

23.0%
19.2

21.1%
17.2

Race/Hispanic origin
Whitea
Black/African Americana
Hispanic/Latino
Othera,b
Two or more racesa

22.1%
19.3
17.5
16.2
--

20.2%
16.5
15.8
15.2
27.6

Age
16-17
18-24
25-34
35-44
45-54
55-64
65 or older

20.8%
31.7
25.2
23.1
20.3
15.6
9.7

20.8%
29.3
23.2
20.4
19.0
14.5
8.3

Estimated number

45,278,880

43,537,370

Note: Detail may not add to total because of rounding. See Methodology
for the distribution of the number of police contacts and the U.S.
population.
--Not available. See Methodology for more information.
aExcludes persons of Hispanic origin.
bIncludes American Indians, Alaska Natives, Asians, Native Hawaiians,
and other Pacific Islanders.

2 Contacts between Police and the Public, 2005

Among persons age 16 or older with at least one face-toface police contact in 2005, the average age was 39. Half
of all residents who had police contact were under 37 (not
shown in table).
43.5 million residents had at least one contact with
police in 2005
In 2005, 43.5 million persons had at least one contact with
police. An estimated 71.5% had just one contact, 17.5%
had two contacts, and the remaining 11% had 3 or more
contacts with police in 2005 (table 2). The total number of
contacts was 71.1 million, with an average of 1.6 face-toface contacts per resident.
Teenagers and young adults were twice as likely as older
residents to have multiple contacts with police. An estimated 20% of persons age 55 or older who had contact
with police reported having more than one contact in 2005
(not shown in table). By comparison, nearly 40% of persons age 16 to 24 who had contact with police indicated
that they had multiple contacts.
Table 2. Number of contacts between police and the public
in 2005, by demographic characteristics

Characteristic
of resident

Total number of contacts (in
millions)

Percent who had contact
with police —
1 time

3 times
2 times or more

Average
number of
contacts
per
resident

Total

71.1

71.5%

17.5

11.0

1.6

Gender
Male
Female

39.2
32.0

70.0%
73.3%

17.7
17.2

12.3
9.5

1.7
1.6

52.6

71.7%

17.3

11.0

1.6

8.6
6.5
2.5

70.1%
70.7%
75.4%

17.7
18.4
16.8

12.2
10.9
7.9

2.0
1.6
1.4

1.0

60.6%

21.4

18.0

2.0

4.2
15.6
14.6
14.3
12.3
6.3
3.9

67.4%
60.2%
72.5%
73.4%
73.2%
77.8%
83.2%

17.6
22.3
16.7
17.4
17.2
14.2
11.8

15.0
17.5
10.8
9.2
9.6
8.0
5.1

2.4
1.9
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.4

Race/Hispanic
origin
Whitea
Black/African
Americana
Hispanic/Latino
Othera,b
Two or more
racesa
Age
16-17
18-24
25-34
35-44
45-54
55-64
65 or older

Note: Detail may not add to total because of rounding.
Excludes persons of Hispanic origin.
b
Includes American Indians, Alaska Natives, Asians, Native Hawaiians,
and other Pacific Islanders.
a

The most common reason for contact with police was a
traffic stop
Survey respondents who had face-to-face contact with
police were asked to describe the nature of the contact.
Respondents who had more than one contact with police
were asked to describe only their most recent contact. In
both 2002 and 2005, more than half of the contacts with
police were the result of a traffic stop or accident (table 3).
The most common reason for contact was as a driver during a traffic stop, accounting for about 4 out of 10 contacts.
Traffic accidents accounted for an additional 13% of all
contacts in 2002 and 2005. The second most frequent reason for contact with police was to report a crime or problem, accounting for about 1 in every 4 contacts.
Table 3. Reasons for face-to-face contact with police
in 2002 and 2005
U.S. population age 16
or older who had contact
with police
2002
2005

Reason for most recent contact

100%

100%

Traffic-related contacts
Driver during traffic stop
Passenger during traffic stop
Traffic accident

Total

52.8%
37.1
2.7
13.0

56.3%
40.9
2.9
12.5

Other contacts
Person reported crime/problem to police
Police provided assistance or service
Police investigating crime
Person suspected of wrong-doing by police
Other reason*

47.2%
26.4
7.2
5.8
2.6
5.3

43.7%
23.7
6.2
5.6
2.8
5.3

Estimated number

45,278,880 43,537,370

Note: Data were based on the most recent contact with police in 2005.
Detail may not add to total because of rounding.
*Includes a small percentage of cases in which the reason for contact
was unknown.

Table 4. Among persons who had face-to face contact,
percent who felt police acted properly, by race/Hispanic
origin, 2005
Reason for most
recent contact
Total
Traffic accident
Police provided assistance
or service
Person reported crime or
problem to police
Driver during traffic stop
Police investigating crime/
person suspected of
wrong-doing
a
b

Percent who felt police acted properly during
the contact, by race/Hispanic origin
Black/African Hispanic/
Totala
Latino
Whiteb Americanb
90.4%
95.6

91.6%
95.6

82.2%
95.3

87.9%
96.8

95.5

96.1

96.0

91.8

92.8
90.4

93.4
91.7

87.9
83.7

92.2
87.5

76.4

79.7

55.3

73.4

Include persons identifying with other races and two or more races.
Excludes persons of Hispanic origin.

Of persons who had contact with police in 2005, 60% indicated their most recent contact was initiated by the police.
The remaining 40% were self-initiated (not shown in table).
A majority of residents felt the police acted properly
during face-to-face contact
Of persons who had contact with the police in 2005, about
9 in 10 felt the officer or officers behaved properly (table 4).
Blacks (82.2%) were less likely than whites (91.6%) to feel
the police acted properly during a contact. Racial differences in opinion about police behavior were not found
across all types of contacts. No differences were found in
the percentages of whites and blacks who felt the police
behaved properly when helping with a traffic accident or
providing assistance, such as giving directions. Blacks
were less likely than whites to believe law enforcement
acted properly during traffic stops and contacts occurring
because police were investigating a crime or suspected the
person of wrong-doing.
The likelihood of being stopped by police did not
change from 2002 to 2005
An estimated 17.8 million persons age 16 or older indicated
that their most recent contact with police in 2005 was as a
driver pulled over in a traffic stop (table 5). These drivers
represented 8.8% of the Nation’s 203 million drivers. Of
persons who had more than one contact that year and
Table 5. Number and percent of drivers stopped by police
in 2002 and 2005, by demographic characteristics

Characteristic of
stopped driver

Drivers stopped by police during most
recent contact
Number (in millions)
Percent
2002
2005
2002
2005

Total

16.8

17.8

Gender
Male
Female

10.2
6.6

11.0
6.9

10.6% 10.8%
6.9
6.8

Race/Hispanic origin
Whitea
Black/African Americana
Hispanic/Latino
Othera,b
Two or more racesa

12.8
1.9
1.6
0.5
--

13.4
1.6
1.8
0.8
0.2

8.8% 8.9%
9.2
8.1
8.6
8.9
7.1
8.1
-12.4

1.7
4.7
3.7
3.2
2.1
1.4

1.5
5.0
3.8
3.7
2.4
1.4

13.7% 13.2%
14.1
13.7
9.8
10.1
7.8
8.8
6.8
6.8
3.8
3.6

Age
16-19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
60 or older

8.8%

8.8%

Note: Detail may not add to total because of rounding. See
Methodology for distribution of U.S. driving population.
a
Excludes persons of Hispanic origin.
bIncludes American Indians, Alaska Natives, Asians, Native Hawaiians,
and other Pacific Islanders.
--Not available. See Methodology for more information.

Contacts between Police and the Public, 2005

3

whose most recent contact was not a traffic stop, an estimated 3 million additional drivers were stopped by police in
2005. The resulting estimated total number of drivers
stopped by police at least once in 2005 was 21 million (or
about 1 in 10 of the Nation’s drivers).
Overall, the likelihood of being stopped by police in 2002
and 2005 was about the same. In both years, male drivers
were pulled over at higher rates than female drivers, and
younger drivers were more likely than their older counterparts to be stopped. Also consistent from 2002 to 2005,
white, black, and Hispanic drivers were stopped by police
at similar rates.
Speeding was the reason for more than half of all
traffic stops
When surveyed drivers were asked what reason the officer
gave for the traffic stop, the most frequent reason was
speeding, cited by more than half (53.3%) of stopped drivers (table 6). An additional 10.7% of drivers indicated they
were stopped for a record check of some sort, such as a
check of driver’s license, insurance coverage, or vehicle
registration. Drivers were also stopped for vehicle defects,

such as a burned out headlight or a loud muffler (9.6%),
violations of stop sign or stop light (7.2%), an illegal turn or
lane change (5.7%), and seatbelt violations (4.7%). An estimated 2.2% of stopped drivers indicated they were pulled
over during a roadside check for drunk drivers.

Table 6. Reasons police gave drivers for pulling
them over in 2005
Reason for traffic stop

Percent of stopped drivers

Total

100%

Speeding
Vehicle defect
Record check
Roadside check for drunk drivers
Seatbelt violation
Illegal turn or lane change
Stop sign/light violation
Other traffic violation
Other

53.3%
9.6
10.7
2.2
4.7
5.7
7.2
2.6
3.9

Note: Detail may not add to total because of rounding. Table excludes
2% of stopped drivers who said police had not given a reason for the
stop.

Most stopped drivers (86%) felt they had been stopped for a legitimate reason
check (72.2%) felt they were stopped for a legitimate
reason compared to white drivers pulled over for the
same reasons (90.5% and 91.8%, respectively).

While the majority of stopped drivers felt police had a
legitimate reason for stopping them, driver opinion was
not consistent across racial/ethnic categories. White
(87.6%) and Hispanic drivers (85.1%) were more likely
than black drivers (76.8%) to feel the stop was
legitimate.
Driver opinion also varied depending on the reason for
the traffic stop. A smaller percentage of black drivers
stopped because of a vehicle defect (66.5%) or a record
Reason for traffic stop
All reasons
Speeding
Vehicle defect
Record check
Roadside check for drunk drivers
Seatbelt violation
Illegal turn or lane change
Stop sign/light violation

Opinions about the legitimacy of the traffic stop were
relatively uniform among white, black, and Hispanic
drivers when the reason for the stop was a roadside
check for drunk drivers, a seatbelt violation, or an illegal
turn or lane change.

Percent of stopped drivers who felt police stopped them for a legitimate reason, by race/Hispanic origin
Totala
Whiteb
Black/AfricanAmericanb
Hispanic/Latino
86.2%
90.8
85.7
88.6
81.2
84.2
81.5
74.2

a

87.6%
91.5
90.5
91.8
80.3
84.0
80.5
77.1

Includes persons identifying with other races and two or more races, not shown separately.
persons of Hispanic origin.
c
Estimate is based on 10 or fewer sample cases.
bExcludes

4 Contacts between Police and the Public, 2005

76.8%
86.3
66.5
72.2
77.5c
87.0
81.8
56.8

85.1%
89.0
85.5
85.4
100.0c
82.0
83.8
72.3

Police issued tickets to more than half of stopped
drivers
As part of the 2005 survey, drivers were asked about the
types of actions police took in order to resolve the traffic
stop. Drivers were asked whether they were:
• given a verbal warning, the least serious type of police
action resulting from a traffic stop
• issued a written warning, a more serious type of action
than a verbal warning
• ticketed, the second most serious type of police action
• arrested, the most serious type of action police could take
to resolve the traffic stop.
Of the 17.8 million drivers stopped by police in 2005, 17.7%
reported that a verbal warning was the most serious action
taken by police during the traffic stop (table 7). An additional 9.1% indicated that receiving a written warning was
the most serious action taken.

Of the four types of action police could take to resolve the
traffic stop, being ticketed was the most common, reported
by 57.4% of stopped drivers. An estimated 2.4% of drivers
reported being arrested. For approximately 13.5% of
stopped drivers, no enforcement action was taken, meaning they did not receive a verbal or written warning nor
were they ticketed or arrested.
The type of action taken by police varied depending on the
reason police gave for making the traffic stop. Drivers
stopped for a vehicle defect (14.9%) were more likely than
speeders (10.1%) to receive a written warning. Speeders
(71.1%) and drivers pulled over for a seatbelt violation
(74.3%) had the greatest likelihood of receiving a ticket
from police. Drivers stopped during a roadside check for
drunk drivers (16.4%) were more likely to be arrested than
drivers stopped for other reasons. Overall, the majority of
drivers stopped during a roadside check (67.8%) indicated
that no enforcement action was taken by police.

Table 7. Enforcement actions taken by police during traffic stops in 2005, by the reason for being stopped
Percent of drivers who were —
Reason for traffic stop
All reasons
Speeding
Vehicle defect
Record check
Roadside check for drunk drivers
Seatbelt violation
Illegal turn or lane change
Stop sign/light violation
Other traffic offense
Other

Total

Issued a written
warning

Given a verbal
warning

No enforcement
action was taken

Arrested

Ticketed

100%

2.4

57.4

9.1

17.7

13.5

100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%

1.1
3.5
1.9*
16.4
-1.9*
2.0*
7.3*
7.1*

71.1
32.2
34.1
7.9*
74.3
57.9
57.9
32.1
28.8

10.1
14.9
6.6
-2.3*
8.1
10.1
11.6
2.3*

15.0
35.0
12.8
7.8*
10.9
22.7
24.9
25.5
17.1

2.8
14.4
44.5
67.8
12.4
9.4
5.1
23.5
44.6

Note: Data on whether drivers were arrested, ticketed, or issued a verbal or written warning were known for 96.3% of cases. Detail may not add to
total because of rounding.
*Estimate is based on 10 or fewer sample cases.
--Less than 0.5%.

Note regarding findings of apparent disparities
The data in this report are from a survey in which U.S.
residents were asked about their contacts with police
and what police did during those contacts. Among
other things, the report documents the percentage of
U.S. residents who were pulled over in a traffic stop,
and the percentage who were ticketed or searched or
arrested. In some cases, such percentages were
found to differ between males and females, between
older and younger residents, and between the
different races. For example, blacks were more likely
than whites to be searched during a traffic stop.

However, the apparent disparities documented in this
report do not constitute proof that police treat people
differently along demographic lines. Any of these
disparities might be explained by countless other
factors and circumstances that were not taken into
account in the analysis.

Contacts between Police and the Public, 2005

5

Police took more serious actions during traffic stops
involving males and younger drivers
Male drivers were more likely than female drivers to experience more serious police actions following a traffic stop.
Males (3.2%) were nearly 3 times more likely than females
(1.1%) to be arrested (table 8). Males (59.2%) were also
more likely than females (54.4%) to be ticketed.
Police actions taken during a traffic stop were not uniform
across racial and ethnic categories. Black drivers (4.5%)
were twice as likely as white drivers (2.1%) to be arrested
during a traffic stop, while Hispanic drivers (65%) were
more likely than white (56.2%) or black (55.8%) drivers to
receive a ticket. In addition, whites (9.7%) were more likely
than Hispanics (5.9%) to receive a written warning, while
whites (18.6%) were more likely than blacks (13.7%) to be
verbally warned by police.
Younger drivers experienced more serious types of actions
by police than older drivers:
• Drivers in their twenties (4.8%) were more likely than drivers in their thirties (1.9%) and forties (1.6%) to be arrested
during a traffic stop.
• Teenage drivers (60.7%) and drivers in their twenties
(58.8%) and thirties (60.8%) were more likely than drivers

in their fifties (52.4%) and drivers age 60 or older (50.4%)
to be ticketed by police during a traffic stop.
More than half of searches were conducted with the
consent of the driver
More than half (57.6%) of all searches conducted in 2005
were by consent. Consent searches occurred because
either the officer asked permission to perform a search and
the driver then granted it, or the driver told the officer he/
she could conduct a search without the officer first asking
for permission.
Search characteristic

Percent of drivers searched by police

Type of search
With consent
Without consent

57.6 %
42.4

Outcome of search
Criminal evidence found
No criminal evidence found

11.6 %
88.4

Estimated number

854,990

Note: Data on whether a stopped driver was searched by police were
known for 96.3% of cases. Data on whether consent was given and
whether evidence was found were known for 92.1% of searched drivers.
Number of drivers searched was imputed to account for this missing
data.

Table 8. Enforcement actions taken by police during traffic stops in 2005, by demographic characteristics
Characteristic
of stopped driver

Total

Arrested

Percent of drivers who were —
Issued a written Given a verbal No enforcement action
Ticketed
warning
warning
was taken

Total

100%

2.4

57.4

9.1

17.7

13.5

Gender
Male
Female

100%
100%

3.2
1.1

59.2
54.4

7.6
11.4

16.5
19.5

13.4
13.5

Race/Hispanic origin
Whitea
Black/African Americana
Hispanic/Latino
Othera,b

100%
100%
100%
100%

2.1
4.5
3.1
1.9c

56.2
55.8
65.0
63.6

9.7
8.4
5.9
7.0

18.6
13.7
14.5
16.0

13.4
17.6
11.6
11.5

Age
16-19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
60 or older

100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%

2.2c
4.8
1.9
1.6
1.3c
--

60.7
58.8
60.8
56.4
52.4
50.4

8.7
8.1
8.1
10.0
9.7
12.2

19.2
18.0
15.3
17.6
19.0
19.2

9.2
10.4
13.9
14.5
17.5
18.2

Note: Total includes estimates for persons identifying with two or more races, not shown separately. Data on whether drivers were arrested,
ticketed, or issued a verbal or written warning were known for 96.3% of cases. Detail may not add to total because of rounding.
--Less than 0.5%.
aExcludes persons of Hispanic origin.
b
Includes American Indians, Alaska Natives, Asians, Native Hawaiians, and other Pacific Islanders.
c
Estimate is based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

6 Contacts between Police and the Public, 2005

The remaining 42.4% of searches occurred without the
consent of the driver. Searches conducted without consent
may occur because: 1) the police officer had not asked permission before conducting the search; 2) the officer had
asked but the driver refused; or 3) the search was conducted pursuant to an arrest.
About 1 in 10 searches during a traffic stop uncovered
evidence of a possible crime
In 11.6% of searches conducted during a traffic stop in
2005, police found drugs, an illegal weapon, open containers of alcohol, or other illegal items. Consent and nonconsent searches turned up evidence of criminal wrong-doing
at similar rates.
Rate of police use of force during a traffic stop
remained stable from 2002 to 2005
Stopped drivers were asked whether, in their opinion,
police had used or threatened to use force against them
during the traffic stop. An estimated 0.8% of the 17.8 million
persons whose most recent contact with police in 2005 was
as a driver in a traffic stop indicated police used or threatened to use force against them (not shown in table). In
2002, the percentage was 1.1%.

Percent of persons experiencing force during a police
contact was about the same in 2002 and 2005
All persons who had contact with police, whether as a
driver in a traffic stop or for some other reason, were asked
if the police officer(s) used or threatened to use physical
force against them during the contact. The survey did not
define force for the respondent. If persons reported more
than one contact that year, they were asked if police used
or threatened force against them during just their most
recent contact.
An estimated 707,520 persons age 16 or older had force
used against them during their most recent contact with
police in 2005 (table 9).* This estimate is about 1.6% of the
43.5 million people reporting face-to-face police contact
during 2005. The percentage of contacts involving police
use of force was relatively unchanged from 2002 to 2005.
In the 2005 PPCS all persons were asked if the police used
or threatened to use force against them at any time during
the year. An estimated 991,930 persons reported that they
experienced force or the threat of force by police at least
once in 2005.
*In the report “use of force” includes threat of force unless otherwise
indicated.

The likelihood of being searched during a traffic stop was unchanged between 2002 and 2005
In both 2002 and 2005, about 5% of stopped drivers
were searched by police during the traffic stop. The 5%
includes searches of the vehicle only, the driver only,
and both the vehicle and the driver.
In both years, male drivers were more likely than female
drivers to be searched by police during a traffic stop.
In 2005 black (9.5%) and Hispanic (8.8%) motorists
stopped by police were searched at higher rates than
whites (3.6%). The likelihood of experiencing a search
did not change for whites, blacks, or Hispanics from
2002 to 2005.
Drivers under the age of 30 (8.4%) had a greater
likelihood than drivers age 30 or older (2.7%) of being
frisked or having their vehicle searched. In 2005 drivers
in the two youngest age categories — teenage drivers
(9.5%) and drivers in their twenties (8.1%) — were more
likely than drivers in their thirties (3.3%), forties (3.3%),
and fifties (2.3%) to experience some type of search.
Due to sample size limitations, analysis could not
be done on the likelihood of being searched by the
reason for the traffic stop and gender, race, and
age differences. See Appendix for more information
on sample size on the BJS web site at
.

Percent of stopped drivers
searched by police
2002
2005

Characteristic
of stopped driver
Total

5.0%

4.8%

Gender
Male
Female

7.1%
1.8

6.8%
1.6

3.5%
10.2
11.4
2.9c

3.6%
9.5
8.8
4.6c

8.9%
6.6
6.4
3.4
1.5
--

9.5%
8.1
3.3
3.3
2.3
--

Race/Hispanic origin
Whitea
Black/African Americana
Hispanic/Latino
Othera,b
Age
16-19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
60 or older

Note: Total includes drivers of two or more races, not shown
separately.
--Less than 0.5%.
aExcludes persons of Hispanic origin.
b
Includes American Indians, Alaska Natives, Asians, Native
Hawaiians, and other Pacific Islanders.
c
Estimate is based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

Contacts between Police and the Public, 2005

7

Among residents who experienced force, 83% felt it
was excessive

Overall, 14.8% of persons who experienced force were
injured during the incident (not shown in table).

Most (82.9%) of the 707,520 people experiencing force in
2005 felt the force used by police was excessive. Whites
(84.3%) involved in force incidents were not more likely
than blacks (81.5%) to feel the force was excessive.
Among Hispanics who had force used against them, 85.6%
felt it was excessive. The differences between estimates for
whites, blacks, and Hispanics were not statistically
significant.

The majority (86.9%) of persons involved in police use of
force incidents in 2005 felt the police acted improperly (not
shown in table). Of those who felt the police acted improperly, 13.1% said they filed a complaint against the police.

Race/Hispanic
origin of resident

Among persons who experienced force,
those who felt it was excessive
Estimated number
Percent

Total
White*
Black/African American*
Hispanic/Latino

586,610
338,380
151,720
83,160

82.9%
84.3
81.5
85.6

Note: Data on whether resident felt force was excessive were reported
for 88.9% of the 707,520 cases of police use of force. Number experiencing excessive force was imputed to account for this missing data.
Total includes estimates for persons identifying with other races and
two or more races, not shown separately.
*
Excludes persons of Hispanic origin.

Table 9. Number and percent of contacts with police in which
force was used in 2002 and 2005, by demographic
characteristics
Characteristic
of resident
Total
Gender
Male
Female

Contacts with police in which force was used
Number
Percent
2002
2005
2002
2005
664,460

707,520

1.5%

1.6%

520,180
144,280

512,350
195,170

2.2%
0.7

2.2%
1.0

Race/Hispanic origin
Whitea
Black or African
Americana
Hispanic/Latino
Othera,b
Two or more racesa

373,850

401,610

1.1%

1.2%

172,660
102,670
15,280c
--

186,060
97,190
3,350c
19,310c

3.5
2.5
1.1c
--

4.4
2.3
/
4.0c

Age
16-19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
60 or older

152,120
230,030
116,770
95,290
49,720
20,540c

158,960
267,990
137,590
67,300
39,930
35,740

3.5%
2.1
1.2
1.0
0.8
/

3.8%
2.5
1.6
0.7
0.7
0.8

Note: Table is based on the resident’s most recent contact with police in
2005. Use of force includes threat of force. Detail may not sum to total
because of rounding. See Methodology for distribution of U.S. population who had contact with police.
--Not available. See Methodology for more information.
/Less than 0.5%.
a
Excludes persons of Hispanic origin.
b
Includes American Indians, Alaska Natives, Asians, Native Hawaiians,
and other Pacific Islanders.
cEstimate is based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

8 Contacts between Police and the Public, 2005

Male, black, and younger residents more likely to
experience force
The differences found among gender, race, and age groups
who experienced force in 2005 were consistent with the
2002 PPCS. Among the persons who had police contact in
2005, females (1.0%) were less likely than males (2.2%) to
have had contact with police that resulted in force (table 9).
Males accounted for a larger percentage (72.4%) of contacts involving force compared to their percentage of all
contacts (53.6%) (table 10).
Blacks (4.4%) and Hispanics (2.3%) were more likely than
whites (1.2%) to experience use of force during contact
with police in 2005. Blacks accounted for 1 out of 10 contacts with police but 1 out of 4 contacts where force was
used.
Persons age 16 to 29 (2.8%) who had contact with police
were more likely than those over age 29 (1.0%) to have
had force used against them. Persons age 16 to 29 made
up a smaller percentage of persons who had a police contact (34.5%) compared to the percentage of persons experiencing force during a contact (60.3%). The median age of
those experiencing force was 26.
About 80% of contacts involving force were initiated by
police
Persons whose contact was police-initiated (such as a traffic stop) were more likely than those whose contact was not
initiated by the police (such as asking police for assistance)
to experience police use of force (2.2% versus 0.8%) (not
shown in table). Police-initiated contacts were 60.4% of the
43.5 million contacts in 2005, but 81.4% of the 707,520
contacts involving police use of force (table 11).
Persons whom police suspected of criminal wrong-doing or
who had contact through a criminal investigation represented a relatively large percentage of the 707,520 force
incidents, as compared to their representation of all persons with contact in 2005. Residents suspected of criminal
wrong-doing by police accounted for a percentage of the
force incidents (23.9%) that was nearly 9 times higher than
their portion of all contacts (2.8%) (tables 3 and 11). Persons whose contact occurred because of a criminal investigation accounted for a percentage of force incidents
(21.3%), almost 4 times higher than their percentage of all
contacts (5.6%).

Table 10. Demographic characteristics of persons who had
a police contact in which force was used in 2005
Characteristic
of resident

Percent of persons who had contact
with police in 2005
Contacts in which
Total
force was used

Total

100%

100%

Gender
Male
Female

53.6%
46.4

72.4%
27.6

Race/Hispanic origin
Whitea
Black/African Americana
Hispanic/Latino
Othera,b
Two or more racesa

75.7%
9.7
9.5
4.0
1.1

56.8%
26.3
13.7
-2.7c

Age
16-29
30 or older

34.5%
65.5

60.3%
39.7

Estimated number

43,537,370

707,520

--Less than 0.5%.
a
Excludes persons of Hispanic origin.
bIncludes American Indians, Alaska Natives, Asians, Native Hawaiians, and other Pacific Islanders.
c
Estimate is based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

Over half of police use of force incidents involved
physical force
Residents who experienced force were asked to describe
the type of force used. Among the estimated 707,520 persons who reported that the police used force against them:
• 55% indicated the police actually used some type of physical force, such as pushing, pointing a gun, or using chemical spray (table 12)
• 27.5% reported force was threatened but not actually
employed
• 10.1% indicated the officer(s) shouted or cursed at them
but did not use or threaten physical force.
An estimated 16.8% of persons experiencing force
reported that they did something to provoke the officer to
use force, such as threatening the police or resisting arrest
(table 13).
About half of persons who had force used against
them were searched by police
In 2005 more than half (54.1%) of those who had force
used against them by police were searched either before or
after the force occurred. Blacks (53.4%) were not more
likely than whites (48.5%) to be searched during contacts
that involved force. Hispanics (71.9%) were more likely
than whites (48.5%) but not more likely than blacks (53.4%)
to be searched during contacts involving force. About 8% of
persons who experienced force reported that police found

Table 11. Type of and reason for contact
with police in which force was used in 2005
Percent of contacts with
police in which force
was used
Total

100%

Type of contact
Police-initiated
Not police-initiateda

81.4%
18.6

Reason for contact
Traffic-related contacts
Driver during traffic stop
Passenger during traffic stop
Traffic accident
Other contacts
Person reported crime/problem to police
Police provided assistance or service
Police investigating crime
Person suspected of wrong-doing by police
Other reasonb

30.8%
20.2
3.5c
7.1
69.2%
5.6
0.9c
21.3
23.9
17.5

Estimated number

707,520

Note: Data on the type of contact were reported for 98.7% of the
707,520 cases. Use of force includes threat of force. Detail may not add
to total because of rounding.
a
Includes contact initiated by the survey respondent or someone other
than the police, such as a family member or acquaintance.
bIncludes a small percentage of cases in which the reason for
contact was not specified.
c
Estimate is based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

illegal items (such as drugs, an open alcohol container, or a
weapon) during the contact (not in a table).
About a third of force incidents resulted in arrest
About 3 in 10 persons who had force used or threatened
against them in 2005 were arrested during the incident.
Less than half (41.2%) of persons experiencing force were
handcuffed during the incident. The higher percentage of
persons handcuffed versus arrested during force incidents
may be an indication that police use handcuffs to detain
people during contact and release them without making an
arrest.
Methodology
The 2005 Police-Public Contact Survey was conducted for
the Bureau of Justice Statistics during the last 6 months of
2005 by the U.S. Census Bureau as a supplement to the
National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). The NCVS
sample consisted of 80,237 individuals age 16 or older.
About 20% of the NCVS sample, or 16,294 individuals,
were excluded from the 2005 PPCS as noninterviews or as
proxy interviews.
Noninterviews (14,757) included respondents not available
for the interview, those who refused to participate, and nonEnglish speaking respondents. (Unlike NCVS interviews,
PPCS interviews are only conducted in English). The
remainder (1,537) were proxy interviews. A proxy interview
may be conducted when a person is unable for physical,
Contacts between Police and the Public, 2005

9

mental, or other reasons to participate. BJS staff determined that proxy interviewees would have difficulty describing the details of any contacts between police and the sampled respondent and decided to exclude them.
In total, the PPCS interviewed 63,943 persons, which represents an 80% response rate among eligible individuals
(compared to an overall response rate of 87% for the
NCVS). Among the PPCS interviews, 23,761 (37%) were
conducted in person and 40,182 (63%) by telephone. The
Table 12. Type of force used or threatened
by police in 2005
Percent of contacts with
police in which force was
used or threatened

Type of force used
or threatened by police
Total

55.0%
43.4
8.6
3.4b
15.2
10.0

Police threatened to use force

27.5%

Shouted or cursed at by police

10.1%

Type of force used or threatened
was not reported

Standard errors for the percent of drivers stopped by police
(table 5) and the percent of persons who experienced force
(table 9) by demographic characteristics are provided on
page 11. See Appendix for other tables available on the
BJS web site at .

707,520

a

Detail sums to more than 55% because some respondents
reported more than one type of actual force.
b
Estimate is based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

Table 13. Characteristics of contacts with police in which
force was used in 2005, by race/Hispanic origin
Race/Hispanic origin of resident
Characteristic of contact
involving force
Searched the resident
Handcuffed the resident
Arrested the resident
Actions of resident may
have caused police to
use force
Estimated number

Total

Whitea

Respondents in the 2005 Police-Public Contact Survey
were directly interviewed to determine how many had a
face-to-face contact with police during the previous 12
months. Data on the number and nature of face-to-face
contacts with police were based solely on the personal
accounts of these PPCS respondents. Official police
records on contacts between police and the public were not
used.

In comparisons indicated in the text, an explicit or implied
difference indicates a test of significance was conducted,
and the difference was significant at the .05 level. Certain
differences were not significant at the .05 level but were
significant at the .10 level. The terms “somewhat,” “some
indication” or “slightly” refer to differences significant at the
.10 level. The report also indicates that some comparisons
were not different, meaning the difference between the two
estimates was not significant at either the .05 or .10 levels.

7.4%

Estimated number

Data collection

Statistical significance

100%

Police actually used forcea
Pushed or grabbed
Kicked or hit
Sprayed chemical/pepper spray
Pointed gun
Used other force

PPCS sample in 2005, after adjustment for nonresponse,
was weighted to produce a national estimate of
228,040,117 persons age 16 or older.

Black/
African
Hispanic/
Americana Latino

54.1%
41.2
31.7

48.5%
36.9
30.9

53.4%
40.9
27.1

71.9%
50.0
37.8b

16.8

19.0

11.7b

17.0b

707,520

401,610

186,060

97,190

Note: Use of force includes threat of force. Data on whether resident was
searched were reported for 84%; handcuffed for 91.5%; arrested for
91.5%; caused force for 82.4%. Total includes estimates for persons
identifying with other races and two or more races, not shown separately.
aExcludes persons of Hispanic origin.
b
Estimate is based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

Racial designations
In 1997 the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) introduced new guidelines for the collection and reporting of
race and ethnicity data in government surveys. These
methodological changes were implemented for all demographic surveys as of January 1, 2003. Individuals after
that date were allowed to choose more than one racial category. In prior years individuals were asked to select a single primary race.
In 2005 the racial categories changed from previous
Police-Public Contact Surveys to separately identify residents of two or more races. Racial categories presented in
this report now consist of the following: white only, black
only, other race only (American Indian, Alaska Native,
Asian, Native Hawaiian, or other Pacific Islander if only one
of these races is given), and two or more races (all persons
of any race indicating two or more races). Because about
0.7% of survey respondents identified two or more races,
the impact on the rates of police contact for each race is
relatively small.
Prior to 2003, individuals were also asked whether they
were of Hispanic origin before being asked about their
race. In 2005 respondents were asked directly if they were
Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino. Individuals who indicated they

10 Contacts between Police and the Public, 2005

Methodology table 1. Number of drivers, persons with face-to-face police contact, and total residents
age 16 or older in the United States in 2002 and 2005, by demographic characteristics
Characteristic
of resident

Total
2002

2005

U.S. population age 16 or older
Contact with police
Driving populationa
2002
2005
2002
2005

Drivers stopped by policeb
2002
2005

Total

215,536,780

228,040,120

45,278,880

43,537,370

191,735,660

202,539,650

16,783,470

17,825,140

Gender
Male
Female

103,988,720
111,548,060

110,498,160
117,541,950

23,884,650
21,394,230

23,357,090
20,180,280

95,983,080
95,752,580

101,376,040
101,163,600

10,210,450
6,573,020

10,960,100
6,865,040

157,373,710

162,918,330

34,743,450

32,936,290

146,203,930

150,874,020

12,842,250

13,402,680

25,694,070
23,955,180
8,513,810
--

25,541,550
26,253,090
11,592,850
1,734,290

4,966,390
4,191,710
1,377,330
--

4,208,490
4,155,970
1,757,780
478,850

20,118,090
18,470,530
6,943,110
--

20,114,980
20,621,580
9,454,880
1,474,190

1,852,090
1,595,870
493,260
--

1,630,770
1,839,140
769,350
183,210

8,258,250
8,003,620
19,385,230
17,745,200
19,564,860
21,108,220
23,048,580
21,111,000
18,156,610
14,751,340
11,253,810
33,150,060

8,461,880
8,033,220
20,358,200
20,056,000
19,631,620
20,756,790
22,523,710
22,464,790
20,055,130
17,514,180
13,004,310
35,180,300

1,720,200
2,594,030
6,074,820
4,842,870
4,573,910
5,171,390
5,024,130
4,470,580
3,515,570
2,491,260
1,577,380
3,222,740

1,758,120
2,464,910
5,862,590
4,944,100
4,274,200
4,251,700
4,562,340
4,548,960
3,515,110
2,624,900
1,806,400
2,924,030

5,411,470
6,624,080
17,241,050
16,187,490
18,204,140
19,828,440
21,664,780
19,795,430
16,933,350
13,574,900
10,273,390
25,997,130

5,287,950
6,429,550
17,837,370
18,356,260
18,317,640
19,360,090
21,189,570
21,109,740
18,640,620
16,341,140
11,831,210
27,838,500

487,200
1,166,360
2,707,710
1,999,670
1,765,380
1,976,040
1,737,810
1,497,270
1,214,760
859,630
599,060
772,580

564,310
978,740
2,627,730
2,339,880
1,928,370
1,858,570
1,887,940
1,817,490
1,333,630
1,059,650
686,640
742,200

Race/Hispanic origin
Whitec
Black/African
Americanc
Hispanic/Latino
Otherc,d
Two or more racesc
Age
16-17
18-19
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54
55-59
60-64
65 or older

Note: Detail may not add to total because of rounding.
Includes licensed and unlicensed drivers who operate a motor vehicle a few times a year or more.
bIncludes stops of all types of motor vehicles — for example, motorcycles, buses, and private and
commercial cars and trucks — and both personal and business travel.
c
Excludes persons of Hispanic origin.
dIncludes American Indians, Alaska Natives, Asians, Native Hawaiians, and other Pacific Islanders.
--Not available. See racial designation section for more information.
a

are of Hispanic origin are categorized under the heading
Hispanic or Latino.
Comparing estimates from previous Police-Public Contact
Surveys
The Police-Public Contact Survey has been conducted four
times: 1996, 1999, 2002, and 2005. In this report, comparisons are exclusively between estimates from the 2002 and
the 2005 surveys. See the Appendix for information on the
reasons for limiting comparisons to these two years available on the BJS web site at .

Methodology table 2. Estimate of 1 standard error for
percentages in tables 5 and 9
Percent of drivers
stopped by police
2002
2005

Characteristic
of resident

Percent of contacts
with police in which
force was used
2002
2005

Total

0.20%

0.20%

0.10%

0.16%

Gender
Male
Female

0.26%
0.20

0.28%
0.19

0.18%
0.09

0.25%
0.15

Race/Hispanic origin
White
Black/African American
Hispanic/Latino
Other
Two or more races

0.22%
0.42
0.43
0.49
--

0.22%
0.48
0.45
0.61
1.66

0.10%
0.56
0.41
0.50
--

0.16%
0.69
0.49
0.19
2.69

Age
16-19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
60 or older

0.71%
0.39
0.32
0.28
0.34
0.18

0.77%
0.51
0.41
0.32
0.28
0.21

0.55%
0.26
0.22
0.19
0.25
0.15

0.68%
0.44
0.28
0.21
0.18
0.22

--Not available. See racial designation section for more information.

Contacts between Police and the Public, 2005

11

U.S. Department of Justice
Office of Justice Programs
Bureau of Justice Statistics

*NCJ~215243*

PRESORTED STANDARD
POSTAGE & FEES PAID
DOJ/BJS
Permit No. G-91

Washington, DC 20531

Official Business
Penalty for Private Use $300

Other BJS reports on police-public contacts
Each of the following publications is available on the BJS
website.
Police Use of Force: Collection of National Data, November
1997;
Contacts between Police and the Public: Findings from the
1999 National Survey, February 2001;
Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999, March
2002;
Contacts between Police and the Public: Findings from the
2002 National Survey, April 2005;
Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 2002, June
2006;

The Bureau of Justice Statistics is the statistical agency
of the U.S. Department of Justice. Jeffrey L. Sedgwick
is the Director.
Matthew R. Durose and Erica L. Smith wrote this report,
under the supervision of Patrick A. Langan, Ph.D.
Mallory Nobles, BJS intern, provided statistical
assistance. Tina Dorsey edited the report, under the
supervision of Doris J. James. Jayne Robinson
prepared the report for final printing.
April 2007, NCJ 215243

This report in portable document format and in ASCII
and its related statistical data and tables are available
at the BJS World Wide Web Internet site:

Office of Justice Programs
Innovation • Partnerships • Safer Neighborhoods
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov

12 Contacts between Police and the Public, 2005

Comparing estimates from previous Police-Public
Contact Surveys
There are several reasons for limiting comparisons to findings from the 2002 and 2005 surveys. Changes were made
to the data collection instrument following the 1999 survey
to reduce the overall response burden to survey participants. These changes affected estimates of the reason for
contact with police, in particular the number of drivers
stopped. In 1999, respondents were asked whether they
had been a driver stopped by police at any time during the
previous 12 months. Any respondent who had been pulled
over in a traffic stop was then included in the count of the
number of drivers stopped by police, regardless of whether
the traffic stop was their most recent contact with police.
In 2002 and 2005, the survey was changed so that respondents were asked only about their most recent contact with
police during the previous 12 months. Respondents whose
most recent face-to-face contact was not a traffic stop, but
who had been pulled over by police earlier in the year, were
not included in the count of the number of drivers stopped.
Due to this change in the survey, the estimated number of
drivers stopped by police was smaller in 2002 and 2005

than in 1999. Estimates of the characteristics of drivers
stopped by police, such as the percentage of drivers
searched or the reasons drivers were stopped, were unaffected by these changes, and remain comparable between
1999, 2002, and 2005.
Following the 1999 survey, the measurement of the number
of drivers in the United States was modified and the estimate of the likelihood of being stopped by police in 1999 is
not directly comparable to estimates in 2002 and 2005. The
denominator used to calculate the likelihood of being
stopped by police was "licensed drivers" in 1999, as estimated by the U.S. Department of Transportation's 1995
Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey. In 2002 and
2005 the denominator was "drivers in the United States," as
estimated directly from responses to additional questions
included in the 2002 and the 2005 Police-Public Contact
Surveys. The denominator change was made to account
for all persons who drive, licensed and not licensed, to better approximate the number of persons at risk of being
stopped by police. Excluded from the new denominator
were licensed drivers who indicated that they never drive.

Appendix table 1. Number of survey respondents in the 2005 Police-Public Contact Survey,
by demographic characteristics
Characteristic
of resident
Total persons

All survey
respondents

Persons with
police contact

Persons against
whom force was Drivers stopped Stopped drivers
used
by police
searched by police

63,943

11,843

166

4,744

189

Gender
Male
Female

29,125
34,818

5,972
5,871

116
50

2,759
1,985

160
29

Race/Hispanic origin
Whitea
Black/African Americana
Hispanic/Latino
Othera,b
Two or more racesa

46,068
6,859
7,327
3,238
451

9,054
1,076
1,135
462
116

94
44
24
1
3

3,582
410
505
201
46

109
31
37
8
4

Age
16-19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
60 or older

3,522
9,431
11,463
13,290
11,340
14,897

903
2,504
2,398
2,683
1,868
1,487

33
55
33
20
13
12

335
1,140
1,026
1,070
721
452

24
83
32
34
15
1

aExcludes
b

persons of Hispanic origin.
Includes American Indians, Alaska Natives, Asians, Native Hawaiians, and other Pacific Islanders.

Contacts between Police and the Public, 2005

13

Appendix table 3. Estimate of 1 standard
error for percentages in table on page 7

Appendix table 2. Estimate of 1 standard
error for percentages in table 1

Characteristic of resident

Percent of U.S. population age
16 or older who had contact with
police
2002
2005

Total

0.37%

0.33%

Gender
Male
Female

0.45%
0.38

0.41%
0.34

Race/Hispanic origin
White
Black/African American
Hispanic/Latino
Other
Two or more races

0.45%
0.58
0.57
0.69
--

0.38%
0.64
0.57
0.77
2.72

Age
16-17
18-24
25-34
45-44
45-54
55-64
65 or older

0.94%
0.74
0.48
0.54
0.51
0.57
0.35

1.08%
0.93
0.58
0.47
0.42
0.43
0.31

-- Not available. See racial designation section for more information.

14 Contacts between Police and the Public, 2005

Characteristic of resident

Percent of stopped drivers
searched by police
2002
2005

Total

0.35%

0.34%

Gender
Male
Female

0.53%
0.28

0.54%
0.32

Race/Hispanic origin
White
Black/African American
Hispanic/Latino
Other

0.32%
1.52
1.27
1.31

0.38%
1.75
1.42
1.64

Age
16-19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
60 or older

1.44%
0.75
0.72
0.62
0.46
--

1.84%
0.95
0.59
0.57
0.62
0.23

-- No case in the sample.