EP PI Survey_Att a-2B EP PI Survey-Stokols et al

The Science of Team Science: Origins and Themes

The Science of Team Science
Overview of the Field and Introduction to the Supplement
Daniel Stokols, PhD, Kara L. Hall, PhD, Brandie K. Taylor, MA, Richard P. Moser, PhD
Abstract:

The science of team science encompasses an amalgam of conceptual and methodologic
strategies aimed at understanding and enhancing the outcomes of large-scale collaborative
research and training programs. This field has emerged rapidly in recent years, largely in
response to growing concerns about the cost effectiveness of public- and private-sector
investments in team-based science and training initiatives. The distinctive boundaries and
substantive concerns of this field, however, have remained difficult to discern. An
important challenge for the field is to characterize the science of team science more clearly
in terms of its major theoretical, methodologic, and translational concerns. The articles in
this supplement address this challenge, especially in the context of designing, implementing, and evaluating cross-disciplinary research initiatives. This introductory article summarizes the major goals and organizing themes of the supplement, draws links between the
constituent articles, and identifies new areas of study within the science of team science.
(Am J Prev Med 2008;35(2S):S77–S89) © 2008 American Journal of Preventive Medicine

Background

T

he past two decades have witnessed a surge of
interest and investments in large-scale team
science programs.1–7 Ambitious multiyear initiatives to promote cross-disciplinary collaboration in
research and training have been launched by several
public agencies and private foundations.8 –15 Considering the enormous complexity and multifactorial causation of the most vexing social, environmental, and
public health problems (e.g., terrorism and interethnic violence; global warming; cancer, heart disease,
diabetes, and AIDS; health disparities among minority
populations), efforts to foster greater collaboration
among scientists trained in different fields are not only
a useful but also an essential strategy for ameliorating
these problems.16 –22 At the same time, some observers
of science policy question whether the current popularity of cross-disciplinary research and training is
merely a passing fad whose scientific and societal value,
relative to smaller-scale unidisciplinary projects, has
been overstated.23 Critics of cross-disciplinary initiatives
contend that they divert valuable resources from important discipline-based research and draw scientists
into collaborative centers and teams who otherwise

From the School of Social Ecology, University of California Irvine
(Stokols), Irvine, California; the Division of Cancer Control and
Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute (Hall, Moser); and
the Office of Portfolio Analysis and Strategic Initiatives, NIH (Taylor), Bethesda, Maryland
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Daniel Stokols,
PhD, Department of Planning, Policy and Design, UC Irvine, 206-C
Social Ecology I Building, School of Social Ecology, Irvine CA 92697.
E-mail: [email protected].

might be more productive working independently or as
co-investigators on smaller-scale projects.24,25
As public and private investments in team science
initiatives have grown and debates about their intellectual and societal value have ensued, the importance of
clearly defining and evaluating the effectiveness of
these programs has become more evident.26 –31 Practical concerns about gauging the value added and the
return on investment accruing from large research
initiatives4,26,32 have given rise to the science of team
science, a rapidly emerging yet still-amorphous field
characterized by a lack of consensus about its defining
substantive boundaries and core concerns.
The goals of this article are twofold: (1) to describe
the science of team science in terms of its major
conceptual, methodologic, and translational concerns;
and (2) to introduce the present supplement to the
American Journal of Preventive Medicine on the science of
team science by offering an overview of its organization
and specific aims.9,19,27,33– 49

The Science of Team Science: Units of Analysis and
Distinguishing Features
It is important to distinguish between team science initiatives themselves and the science-of-team-science field,
whose principal units of analysis are the large research
and training initiatives implemented by public agencies
and nonpublic organizations and the various projects
within each initiative conducted by scholars who work
within and across their respective fields. Team science
initiatives are designed to promote collaborative—and
often cross-disciplinary—approaches to analyzing re-

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search questions about particular phenomena (e.g., the
joint influence of social, behavioral, and biogenetic
factors on cancer etiology and treatment examined by
Hiatt and Breen,19 and the multilevel determinants of
health disparities discussed by Holmes et al.34 in this
supplement). The science-of-team-science field, on the
other hand, is a branch of science studies concerned
especially with understanding and managing circumstances that facilitate or hinder the effectiveness of
team science initiatives.50 –54 The field as a whole focuses not on the phenomena addressed by particular
team science initiatives (e.g., cancer, heart disease,
obesity, community violence, environmental degradation), but rather on understanding and enhancing the
antecedent conditions, collaborative processes, and
outcomes associated with team science initiatives more
generally, including their scientific discoveries, educational outcomes, and translations of research findings
into new clinical practices and public policies.9,35,55
Some of the distinguishing features of team science
initiatives and the unique substantive concerns of the
science-of-team-science field are outlined below.

Characteristics of Scientific Initiatives and Teams
Efforts to integrate knowledge in the science-of-teamscience field face considerable challenges, owing to the
highly disparate units of analysis found in the earlier
studies of scientific teams.27,36,56 Research teams, for
example, may consist of investigators drawn from either
the same or different fields (i.e., unidisciplinary versus
cross-disciplinary teams). These teams vary not only in
terms of their disciplinary composition but also in
terms of their size, organizational complexity, and
geographic scope, ranging from a few participants
working at the same site to scores of investigators
dispersed across multiple geographic and organizational venues.55,57 Furthermore, the goals of team
science initiatives are quite diverse (e.g., spanning
scientific discovery; training; and clinical, translational,
public health, and policy-related goals), and both the
quality and level of intellectual integration intended
and achieved among disciplines varies from one program to the next (i.e., along a continuum ranging from
unidisciplinary to multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary,
and transdisciplinary integration, as described more
fully below).27,37,58 – 60
Because team science initiatives differ along so many
dimensions, including their size, goals, duration, organizational structure, and cross-disciplinary scope, it is
important to be clear at the outset about the kinds of
research and training initiatives emphasized in the
present discussion. Team-based projects can include a
handful of scientists working together at a single site,
but the focus here is on the larger and more-complex
initiatives comprising many (e.g., often between 50 and
200) investigators who work collaboratively on multiS78

ple, closely related research projects, and who may be
dispersed across different departments, institutions,
and geographic locations.55 Trochim and colleagues,6
for example, define large research initiatives as grantfunded projects solicited through specific requests for
applications with an average annual expenditure of at
least $5 million. The usual duration of these initiatives
(e.g., NIH P50 and U54 Centers, National Cancer
Institute [NCI] Specialized Programs of Research Excellence [SPOREs]) is 5 years, and they may be refunded, thus extending over one or more decades, in
some cases.61 Some especially broad-gauged initiatives,
such as the NIH Roadmap and the Office of Portfolio
Analysis and Strategic Initiatives (OPASI) programs,
provide the organizational framework and funding
source for scores of other interrelated research and
training initiatives, all of which are designed to promote cross-disciplinary scientific collaboration.11,14 Often, large research initiatives incorporate career development and training components as well as clinical
translation, health promotion, and policy-related functions.13,62– 64 The articles in this supplement address
the full range of scientific, training, clinical translation,
community outreach, health promotion, and publicpolicy goals emphasized within relatively large team
science initiatives of varying size and complexity.
Large initiatives also vary with respect to the collaborative orientations and disciplinary perspectives of
team members. This discussion focuses on initiatives
intended to promote cross-disciplinary rather than
unidisciplinary collaboration.a Cross-disciplinary teams
strive to combine and, in some cases, to integrate
concepts, methods, and theories drawn from two or
more fields. Three different approaches to crossdisciplinary collaboration have been described by
Rosenfield.60 Multidisciplinarity is a process in which
scholars from disparate fields work independently or
sequentially, periodically coming together to share
their individual perspectives for purposes of achieving
broader-gauged analyses of common research problems. Participants in multidisciplinary teams remain
firmly anchored in the concepts and methods of their
respective fields. Interdisciplinarity is a more robust
approach to scientific integration in the sense that team
members not only combine or juxtapose concepts and
a

Distinctions between cross-disciplinary and unidisciplinary collaboration depend on how individual disciplines are defined and bounded.65 Disciplines are generally organized around distinctive substantive
concerns (e.g., biological, psychological, environmental, or sociologic phenomena); analytic levels (e.g., molecular, cellular, cognitive,
behavioral, interpersonal, organizational, community); and concepts,
methods, and measures associated with particular fields. The boundaries between disciplines and subdisciplines are to some extent
arbitrarily defined and agreed upon by communities of scholars.66,67
For instance, the boundaries between some fields may be overlapping
(e.g., physiology and molecular biology) and other fields, such as
public health and urban planning, are inherently multidisciplinary in
that they combine several disciplinary perspectives in analyses of
population health and urban development.

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Table 1. Definitions and examples of scientific orientations60
Scientific orientation

Definition

Example

Unidisciplinarity

Unidisciplinarity is a process in which
researchers from a single discipline work
together to address a common research
problem.
Multidisciplinarity is a sequential process
whereby researchers in different
disciplines work independently, each
from his or her own discipline-specific
perspective, with a goal of eventually
combining efforts to address a common
research problem.
Interdisciplinarity is an interactive process
in which researchers work jointly, each
drawing from his or her own disciplinespecific perspective, to address a
common research problem.

A team of pharmacologists collaborate on a
laboratory study of the relationships between
nicotine consumption and insulin metabolism.

Multidisciplinarity

Interdisciplinarity

Transdisciplinarity

Transdisciplinarity is an integrative process
in which researchers work jointly to
develop and use a shared conceptual
framework that synthesizes and extends
discipline-specific theories, concepts,
methods, or all three to create new
models and language to address a
common research problem.

methods drawn from their different fields, but also
work more intensively to integrate their divergent perspectives, even while remaining anchored in their own
respective fields.27
Transdisciplinarity is a process in which team members representing different fields work together over
extended periods to develop shared conceptual and
methodologic frameworks that not only integrate but
also transcend their respective disciplinary perspectives.b Examples of unidisciplinary, multidisciplinary,
interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary scientific orientations are provided in Table 1. Transdisciplinary
collaborations perhaps have the greatest potential to
produce highly novel and generative scientific outcomes, but they are more difficult to achieve and
sustain than unidisciplinary, multidisciplinary, and
interdisciplinary projects due to their greater complexity and loftier aspirations for achieving transcendent, supra-disciplinary integrations.27,31,37,56,68 –70
The ensuing discussion focuses primarily on interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary science initiatives in
which an explicit goal of the collaboration is to inteb
As Klein27 has observed, cross-disciplinary teams, rather than being
exclusively multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, or transdisciplinary in
their orientation, often incorporate a mixture of these approaches,
each of which may become more or less predominant during
different phases of collaboration.

August 2008

A pharmacologist, health psychologist, and
neuroscientist each contribute sections to a
multi-authored manuscript that reviews
research in their respective fields pertaining to
the links between nicotine consumption,
changes in brain chemistry and caloric intake
induced by nicotine, and physical activity levels.
A pharmacologist, health psychologist, and
neuroscientist conduct a collaborative study to
examine the interrelations among patterns of
nicotine consumption, brain chemistry, caloric
intake, and physical activity levels. Their
research design incorporates conceptual and
methodologic approaches drawn from each of
their respective fields.
A pharmacologist, health psychologist, and
neuroscientist conduct a collaborative study to
examine the interrelations among nicotine
consumption, brain chemistry, caloric intake,
and physical activity levels. Based on their
findings, they develop a neurobehavioral model
of the links among tobacco consumption, brain
chemistry, insulin metabolism, physical activity,
and obesity that integrates and extends the
concepts and methods drawn from their
respective fields.

grate theories, methods, and training strategies drawn
from two or more fields. Examples of large-scale interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary team initiatives are
the NCI, National Institute of Drug Abuse (NIDA), and
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism
(NIAAA) Transdisciplinary Tobacco Use Research Centers (TTURCs)71; the NCI Transdisciplinary Research
on Energetics and Cancer (TREC) Centers72; the Centers for Excellence in Cancer Communications Research (CECCR)73; the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS)64; the National
Institute on Aging (NIA)64; the NIH Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research (OBSSR)64; the NCI
Centers for Population Health and Health Disparities
(CPHHD)64; and the National Center for Research
Resources (NCCR) Clinical and Translational Science
Centers (CTSC).13,74
The distinctions among unidisciplinary, multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary forms of
scientific collaboration are directly relevant to the
development of criteria for gauging the success of team
science initiatives. In particular, measures of scientific
collaboration and its outcomes should be appropriately
matched to the research, training, and translational
goals of particular initiatives. A key goal of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary initiatives, for example, is
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to bridge the perspectives of different fields through
the collaborative development of integrative conceptualizations, methodologic approaches, and training
strategies. Thus, an important criterion for gauging the
success of these initiatives is the extent to which crossdisciplinary integrations are actually achieved by research teams.27,37,75 These issues are discussed more
fully below.

Scholars in the science-of-team-science field have given
considerable attention to at least two broad categories
of conceptual tasks: (1) defining key terminology and
(2) developing theoretical models to account for the
circumstances under which team science initiatives are
more or less effective.

scope of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary integration (e.g., the development of integrative conceptualizations and methodologic approaches, the development of training programs bridging two or more
fields, the emergence of new hybrid fields of inquiry)
are important facets of collaborative scholarship that
must be considered in view of their explicit mission
to promote scientific integration.14,27,31,37
Also, because the scientific, educational, and translational aims of team science initiatives are highly diverse,
it is crucial to identify the highest-priority goals and
corresponding criteria of success for any given program.27,36 The overall success of large-scale initiatives
(e.g., the NCI TTURC, CECCR, TREC, and CPHHD
programs) may be construed differently than the effectiveness of the particular research centers and projects
subsumed within them.9,78 For instance, the cumulative
scientific and public health advances associated with
large-scale initiatives are qualitatively distinct from the
more circumscribed intellectual achievements of a particular research center or team. For both broad-gauged
initiatives and their subsidiary projects, key dimensions
of program effectiveness (e.g., development of transdisciplinary syntheses, publication of empirical findings,
translations of research into clinical practices and policy innovations) are likely to shift as team members
progress through the initial, intermediate, and later
stages of collaboration.6,31,36 Collaborative processes and
outcomes appear to be stage-dependent, and therefore
should be defined differently for near-, mid-, and longerterm phases of team science programs.
Finally, for many team science initiatives, it is
important to define not only the distinguishing features of effective scientific collaboration but also the
essential facets of successful interdisciplinary and
transdisciplinary training (e.g., the career trajectories and intellectual contributions of current and
former trainees).37,62,81– 83

Defining key terms. It is important to clearly define the
major units of analysis and the core subject matter of
the science-of-team-science field (e.g., organizational
complexity and geographic scope of team science
initiatives; different forms of cross-disciplinary research, including multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary,
and transdisciplinary collaboration).8,58 A major challenge is to specify the dimensions of program effectiveness or success as they pertain to team science initiatives. For instance, the quality of scientific work may be
defined differently in the context of interdisciplinary
and transdisciplinary team initiatives than in unidisciplinary projects. Traditional criteria of scientific quality include conceptual originality; methodologic
rigor (e.g., validity and reliability of empirical findings); and the quantity of research outputs produced,
such as peer-reviewed publications. In the context of
team science initiatives, however, the quality and

Developing theoretical models and conceptual frameworks. To date, a number of conceptual models have
been proposed by science-of-team-science scholars to
identify key antecedent conditions, intervening processes, and outcomes associated with team science
initiatives and to explain the interrelationships
among them (e.g., the presence of institutional supports or constraints at the beginning of an initiative
and their impact on subsequent collaborative processes and outcomes).6,8,55,75,84 For instance, Trochim and colleagues6 offered an empirically derived
logic model (based on the NCI TTURC initiative-wide
evaluation study) that accounts for the temporal links
observed between the early processes of intellectual
collaboration and integration, on the one hand, and
subsequent team products—including scholarly publications, transdisciplinary training programs, community
health interventions, and public-policy initiatives— on the

Substantive Concerns and Research Foci Within the
Science-of-Team-Science Field
The science-of-team-science field encompasses an amalgam of conceptual frameworks and methodologies that
have been used in earlier studies to assess the processes
and outcomes of cross-disciplinary research centers and
teams. The findings from these studies are part of a
rapidly growing database within the science-of-teamscience field.2,3,8,10,31,32,38,74 – 80 Common themes that
offer a basis for integrating prior and future studies
of team science initiatives are beginning to emerge,
but the field still lacks the conceptual coherence of a
more established and widely recognized scientific
paradigm.27,39,66 Greater scientific coherence may be
achieved as science-of-team-science scholars reach
further agreement about the field’s major conceptual, methodologic, and translational concerns. Several substantive concerns and challenges within the
science-of-team-science field are outlined below.

Conceptual Concerns

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other; and in this supplement, Holmes et al.34 and Hall et
al.40 present multistage conceptual frameworks that have
guided transdisciplinary research, training, and community intervention efforts within the NCI CPHHD and
TREC initiatives, respectively.
Earlier, Stokols and colleagues31,76 proposed an
antecedent–process– outcome model of transdisciplinary science in which several interpersonal, environmental, and organizational antecedents of collaboration are considered, such as the leadership styles of
center directors, scientists’ commitment to team research, the availability of shared research and meeting
space, electronic connectivity among team members,
and the extent to which they share a history of working
together on prior projects. The intervening processes
examined in this model included intellectual, interpersonal, and affective experiences as well as observed or
self-reported collaborative behaviors, or both. Examples
of these processes are the brainstorming of strategies to
create and integrate new ideas, to deal with the crossdisciplinary biases and tensions that often arise in collaborative situations, and to negotiate and resolve conflicts.
The antecedent and process variables specified in the
model, in turn, influence several near-, mid-, and
long-term outcomes of scientific collaboration, including the development of new conceptual frameworks,
research publications, training programs, and translational innovations over the course of the initiative.
Empirical support for the hypothesized links among
antecedent, process, and outcome variables was derived
from a longitudinal (5-year) comparative study of the
TTURC centers.31,62,75,77
Existing models of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary collaboration raise several questions for future
research. For example, certain antecedent conditions
present at the outset of a team science project can be
conceptualized as collaboration-readiness factors that
jointly influence a team’s prospects for success over the
course of an initiative.36,40,75 However, the relative
contributions of individual collaboration-readiness factors (e.g., the leadership skills of center directors, the
availability of shared office and laboratory space, team
members’ experiences working together on earlier
projects) to specific dimensions of collaborative effectiveness (e.g., the quantity of team publications produced as well as their integrative quality and scope, the
development of sustainable partnerships with community organizations) are not well-understood and warrant further study.39
Also, earlier conceptual models and the field studies
on which they are based suggest that the intellectual
and scientific outcomes of team science initiatives are
strongly influenced by social and interpersonal processes, including team members’ collaborative styles
and behaviors, interpersonal conflicts, and negotiation
strategies.6,27,75,85 Yet the precise ways in which these
social processes influence scientific productivity and
August 2008

transdisciplinary integration are not known. For instance, team members’ disagreements about scientific
issues may enhance collaborative effectiveness by stimulating new insights and countering tendencies toward
“groupthink” among individuals who have worked together for extended periods.86 On the other hand,
long-standing scholarly disagreements that provoke interpersonal conflict can undermine members’ trust of
each other and their overall performance.87,88 The
empirical relationships between the interpersonal and
intellectual dimensions of scientific collaboration remain to be elucidated in future studies.

Methodologic and Measurement Issues
A variety of methods and measures have been used to
assess the antecedents, processes, and outcomes of
team science initiatives. The most useful or strategic are
those that efficiently apply evaluation resources to yield
information about the major contributions and limitations of particular programs in a manner that is responsive to the needs of multiple stakeholder groups, including participating scientists and trainees, funding
organizations, policymakers, and translational partners
in clinical settings and community organizations.9 Evaluations of team science programs are embedded within
overlapping spheres of influence encompassing organizational, institutional, community, regional, national,
and global levels, with multiple stakeholders situated at
each level.29,41,42,89 Strategic evaluations incorporate
the diverse perspectives of team science interest groups
and adopt some or all of the methodologic strategies
mentioned below.
Weighted measures of program success. Strategic evaluations begin with a clear vision of what constitutes
success within a particular initiative. For example, NCI
research and training center initiatives (TTURC,
CECCR, CPHHD, TREC) include multiple goals and
objectives, ranging from the achievement of: (1) scientific advances in a targeted area of research (e.g.,
cancer communications or tobacco-use research) resulting from collaborative synergies within and across
participating research centers; (2) innovative approaches to and intended outcomes of transdisciplinary
research training; (3) translations of scientific research
into useful and sustainable clinical practices and community health programs; (4) translations of scientific
research into innovative health-policy initiatives; and,
ultimately; (5) reductions in health-risk behaviors,
health disparities, and the incidence of chronic diseases
within a particular population.9 The relative priorities
assigned to these goals may vary from one initiative to
another. Thus, evaluations of team science initiatives
are most strategic when the criteria for judging program effectiveness are selected and weighted to reflect
the highest-priority goals of the particular programs
established by funding agencies and other stakeholder
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groups (e.g., participating scientists, community members, and [in the U.S.] the DHHS and Congressional
oversight committees).29
Multimethod evaluation. The diversity of goals encompassed by team science initiatives requires the use of
multiple quantitative and qualitative methods to measure their intended processes and outcomes as well as
to document their unintended ones. The methods used
may include surveys and interviews of team members;
behavioral observations of centerwide and initiativewide meetings and collaborative discussions; archival
analyses of scientific productivity and impact based on
content analyses of written products developed by team
members and bibliometric assessments of initiativebased publications; focus-group meetings among scientists, trainees, and staff members participating in an
initiative; online diary logs of cross-disciplinary encounters; social-network analyses of collaborative exchanges;
and peer reviews by external referees obtained through
periodic site visits and independent evaluations of
progress reports and collaborative publications. The
combined use of survey, interview, observational, and
archival measures in evaluations of team science initiatives affords a more complete understanding of collaborative processes and outcomes than can be gained by
adopting a narrower methodologic approach.6,40,83
Temporal sequencing of evaluative measures. In addition to establishing prioritized criteria for gauging the
scientific, training, translational, and public health
outcomes of an initiative, attention should be paid to
the temporal patterning of evaluation measurements,
ranging from assessments of antecedent conditions
present at the outset of a collaborative project to
early-stage indicators of collaborative synergy and innovation, mid-term markers of scientific and training
innovations, and long-term societal (e.g., policy and
public health) outcomes.90 The latter categories of
outcomes may be so gradual or temporally lagged that
they are not detectable during the period in which an
initiative is actively funded.32 Future studies should be
undertaken to assess the postfunding impacts of team
science initiatives on science, training, and public
health over extended periods (e.g., encompassing one
or more decades).39
Research design and sampling issues. Team science
initiatives pose several challenges related to the sampling of participants and respondents, the establishment of appropriate comparison groups with which to
compare initiative-based research centers and teams,
and the implementation of field experimental or quasiexperimental research designs. Experimental and quasiexperimental evaluations of team science initiatives are
difficult to achieve due to the nonrandom self-selection
of scientists into collaborative teams. Appropriate comS82

parison groups may involve teams of scientists working
in a particular area of health research (e.g., tobacco
science, cancer communications) that applied for a
team– center grant and received “nearly fundable” evaluation scores but were not among those applicants
funded to establish a transdisciplinary research program. Prospective evaluations of team science initiatives
require sufficient numbers of initiative-based research
teams and relevant comparison groups, all of which are
working in a common research area over the same
multiyear period.
To date, the science-of-team-science field has relied
almost exclusively on retrospective and prospective
case-comparison studies rather than on experimental
or quasi-experimental evaluations of research teams,
centers, and the multisite initiatives in which they
participate. However, longitudinal bibliometric and
social-network analyses incorporating multiple comparison groups are currently being implemented at NCI to
evaluate the quantitative and qualitative differences in
the productivity of health scientists (e.g., tobacco-use
researchers) who are working individually on R01
grants, participating in non-initiative– based research
centers, or collaborating as members of transdisciplinary team science initiatives. The increasing use of
quasi-experimental research designs incorporating
multiple comparison groups is an important direction for the science-of-team-science field.39
Convergent validation of evaluation data. Regardless
of the research designs used to assess program effectiveness, the convergent validation of empirical data is
an important benchmark of strategic evaluation. When
evaluations of team science initiatives are conducted,
the survey and interview assessments of program outcomes offered by participating scientists, trainees, and
staff members should be supplemented with peer appraisals provided by external reviewers and consultants.
Additional challenges inherent in peer reviews of team
science initiatives are discussed by Klein in this supplement27 and by Laudel.54

Translational Strategies
Within the science-of-team-science field, translational
strategies can be grouped into two general categories:
(1) the use of research findings from team science
initiatives as a basis for developing improved clinical
practices, disease-prevention strategies, and public
health policies; and (2) the use of research findings
from the evaluations of team science initiatives as a
basis for enhancing the effectiveness of future collaborative research and training programs. Examples of
these two kinds of translational research are outlined
below.

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Translating research findings from team science initiatives into clinical and preventive practices. The NCI
SPOREs and the CPHHD initiative emphasize translational research in which scientific findings are used
to improve the prevention, detection, diagnosis,
treatment— or all of these— of human cancer and to
reduce health disparities in medically underserved
populations.34,63,64 Similarly, utilizing research evidence for the improvement of healthcare delivery is
a core goal of the NCRR CTSCs.13 The scientific
discovery processes associated with team science initiatives are the initial phase of a transdisciplinary
action–research cycle in which team science investigators work closely with community health practitioners and policymakers to translate their findings into
improved therapeutic and preventive practices.55
Community-based coalitions consisting of health scientists and practitioners and intersectoral partnerships between public and private organizations provide the collaborative contexts in which research
findings produced by scientific teams are eventually
translated into practical applications.3,43,91 Examples
of university– community partnerships that have produced effective and sustainable translations of cancer
research findings into community health promotion
and disease-prevention strategies are described by
Emmons et al.44
Translating research findings from team science evaluation studies to enhance future initiatives. This second
category of translational research applies the findings
from team science evaluation studies to improve the
design and effectiveness of ongoing and future collaborative research and training programs. In the case of
ongoing initiatives, formative evaluation strategies can
be used for continuous quality improvement by providing team science participants with regular (e.g., quarterly, annual) feedback about their collaborative processes and outcomes.31,92,93 When future team science
initiatives are designed, collaboration readiness audits
based on the findings from the evaluations of prior
team science programs can be administered to assess a
team’s prospects for collaborative success and to identify opportunities for strengthening institutional and
environmental supports for cross-disciplinary research
and training.75 Also, workshops and training modules
can be implemented to familiarize researchers and
trainees with the challenges inherent in team-based
projects and the steps they can take to improve their
chances for success. These translational strategies contribute toward building greater capacity for scientific
collaboration in team science initiatives.40
Earlier research on team performance suggests that
the structural complexity of team science initiatives is
closely related to the collaborative challenges and coordination constraints encountered by team members.36 Collaborative research and training programs
August 2008

that span multiple organizations, geographic sites, scientific disciplines, and levels of analysis may require
greater institutional and organizational investments in
collaboration-readiness resources to ensure programmatic success than those that are less complex.55 The
empirical links among program complexity; collaboration readiness; and cumulative research, training, and
translational outcomes of team science initiatives
should be examined in future studies.

Goals and Organization of This Supplement on the
Science of Team Science
The present supplement is based on the proceedings of
the NCI Conference on the Science of Team Science
held in Bethesda MD during October 2006, cosponsored by the NCI, the NIH OBSSR, and the American
Psychological Association.33 The purposes of the NCI
conference were to address ambiguities and gaps in the
science-of-team-science literature, promote greater integration of knowledge in this field, and identify key
issues for future investigation. As a prelude to this
event, the NCI convened a group of science-of-teamscience scholars in October 2005 to assess the state of
the knowledge in the field, identify the most pressing
questions for future study, and articulate major goals
and strategies for the 2006 conference. The intent of
the planning meeting was to build on and go beyond
the issues addressed in earlier scholarly discussions
of the implementation and evaluation of large-scale,
cross-disciplinary science and training programs (e.g.,
National Academy of Sciences [NAS] Convocation on
Facilitating Interdisciplinary Research; NAS Conference on Bridging Disciplines in the Brain, Behavioral,
and Clinical Sciences; National Research Council Conference on Interdisciplinary Research; NIH Bioengineering Consortium Symposium on Catalyzing Team
Science).5,21,94,95 In particular, participants were asked
to identify cutting-edge issues and themes that had
received relatively little attention in prior meetings and
research and to draft an agenda of high-priority questions for future study.
During the day-long discussions at the 2005 planning meeting, it was decided that the 2006 meeting
would incorporate structured panel sessions organized around the conference themes; peer-reviewed
poster presentations; opportunities for informal discussion; and a series of commissioned papers to address
high-priority research, training, and translational questions for future investigation.33 The commissioned papers were intended to integrate existing knowledge in
the science-of-team-science field and to open new avenues of research on a variety of previously neglected
topics. These high-priority topics for future research
are addressed in the articles presented in this supplement and are outlined below.
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Developing Integrative Conceptualizations of
Team Science Processes and Outcomes
Earlier conferences and publications revealed important facets of team-based science and training (e.g.,
institutional strategies for facilitating cross-disciplinary
research, metrics for evaluating collaborative processes
and outcomes), but the findings from science-of-teamscience studies remain relatively disjointed and lack
theoretical grounding and interpretation. Some research reports go relatively unnoticed as chapters in
edited volumes published in several different countries or
as reports posted on websites that remain unknown to
many science-of-team-science scholars. Sorely needed are
new conceptualizations of the science-of-team-science
field that are informed by an international perspective
and by integrative frameworks for organizing and interpreting the findings from prior studies. Klein’s article27
addresses these needs by offering an integrative approach
to the evaluation of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary
collaboration— organized around seven core principles
or themes—and an integrative assessment of empirical
knowledge in this field, viewed from an international
perspective. Additionally, the present article and the ones
by Kessel and Rosenfield,38 Croyle,9 and Syme35 in this
supplement provide overviews of the science-of-teamscience field in terms of its major research, training, and
translational concerns, and identify for future investigation several topics that have received little attention in
prior studies.

Implementing Team Science Initiatives
Selectively and Strategically
Earlier studies10,31,36,55 suggest that cross-disciplinary
team research centers and programs are not uniformly
successful. In some situations, smaller-scale unidisciplinary projects may be more feasible and likely to
succeed than larger, team-based initiatives. Also, certain research questions may be more amenable than
others to interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approaches. Thus, cross-disciplinary collaboration should
be viewed as a means for achieving the desired scientific, training, and translational goals rather than as an
end in and of itself. That is, investments in team-based
initiatives should be reserved for those settings and
research topics that are most suited to and would
benefit most from collaborative approaches. An important goal for science-of-team-science research is to facilitate “smarter” science, in which particular approaches
(e.g., single-investigator versus team-based projects; unidisciplinary versus multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, or
transdisciplinary initiatives) are closely matched to the
unique talents and predilections of the participating
scientists, the institutional contexts in which they work,
and particular research topics and fields (some of which
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may be more amenable to cross-disciplinary integration
than others, as noted by Hays45).
Yet conceptual frameworks that enable researchers
and their host organizations to forecast when and
where team science initiatives will be more or less
effective have been lacking. Accordingly, the ecology of
team science by Stokols and colleagues36 in this supplement is intended to provide an integrative typology of
contextual factors that have been found to jointly
influence collaborative effectiveness across a variety of
research and community settings. The typology is based
on a review of empirical findings from the fields of
social psychology, organizational behavior, information
science, community health promotion, and team science evaluation. It offers a conceptual starting point for
developing more fine-grained analyses of high-leverage
variables (i.e., those that most strongly determine the
success of team-based initiatives). Examples of contextual factors that appear to be especially strong determinants of collaborative effectiveness in research settings
are discussed below.

The Impact of Interpersonal Processes and
Leadership Styles on Scientific Collaboration
Prior evaluations of team science initiatives suggest that
the social organization of research teams strongly influences their capacity to achieve scientific or intellectual
integration.6,27,36,75 Several interpersonal processes
may directly influence collaborative effectiveness in
research settings. To the extent that team members
have worked together previously and share a strong
commitment to scientific collaboration, they may be
better able to coordinate their efforts and accomplish
their research, training, and translational goals in subsequent team science projects.31,40,76 On the other
hand, interpersonal conflicts among team members
(especially those persisting over long periods) undermine mutual trust and hinder collaborative processes
and outcomes.10,85,88,96 Among the factors that most
strongly influence the quality of social interactions in
collaborative settings are the abilities and styles of team
leaders. Although the links between leadership and
collaborative effectiveness have been studied extensively in nonscientific settings,97–100 they have received
relatively little attention in the science-of-team-science
field. This gap in science-of-team-science knowledge is
directly addressed in the supplement article by Gray,46
who offers an empirically based conceptualization of
three types of leadership tasks that promote transdisciplinary collaboration among leaders of scientific teams.
Her analysis of the ways in which leadership styles and
abilities influence scientific collaboration provides a conceptual foundation for future research on this topic.
Another important facet of scientific collaboration
are the social networks that exist among researchers
and the ways in which they influence patterns of

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communication and cross-disciplinary integration. The
article by Provan and colleagues42 summarizes an empirical study of social networks among scientists working in the field of tobacco harm reduction. Communications among participating tobacco harm–reduction
scientists from multiple fields that involve only exchanges of information are considered interdisciplinary, whereas those that lead to the creation of synergistic products (e.g., multi-authored publications) are
defined as transdisciplinary. The analyses of network
data provided by Provan et al. reveal that homophily, or
the tendency to interact with others whose backgrounds are similar to a person’s own (evidenced by
intradisciplinary network ties), is more prevalent than
heterophily (defined as cross-disciplinary communications among network members). Moreover, nonsynergistic interdisciplinary interactions are much more
common than transdisciplinary transactions that result
in collaborative research outcomes. These data, along
with the findings from earlier research, highlight scientists’ strong tendencies to affiliate with colleagues whose
disciplinary perspectives are similar to their own, and the
need to better understand the circumstances under which
scientists achieve and sustain cross-disciplinary collaboration and integration.75,101

Developing Cyber-Infrastructures to Support
Scientific Collaboration
Interpersonal processes (e.g., communication networks, conflict-resolution strategies, leadership styles)
are contextual factors that directly influence a team’s
readiness for collaboration at the outset of a project
and their capacity to work together effectively over
extended periods. Additional determinants of collaborative capacity and long-term success are the technologic resources (e.g., intranet and Internet connectivity, grid computing infrastructures, data-mining
strategies) that enable team members to communicate
and integrate diverse sets of data effectively over the
course of a team science project.102 These facets of
technologic infrastructure and expertise and their influence on scientific collaboration have received attention in the fields of information science and organizational behavior, but warrant further investigation in the
context of team science research and training programs.36 The ways in which cyber-infrastructures can
support successful scientific collaboration spanning
multiple disciplines and research sites, and an agenda
of related questions for future science-of-team-science
studies, are discussed by Hesse in this supplement.47

Conceptualizing and Measuring Distinctive
Features of Cross-Disciplinary Training
On the one hand, distinctions among multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary forms
August 2008

of cross-disciplinary (versus unidisciplinary) research
have received considerable attention among scienceof-team-science scholars. On the other hand, these
same distinctions, as they relate to strategies of
cross-disciplinary training, have been relatively neglected.62,82,83 Nash’s article37 in this supplement
confronts current gaps in the understanding of crossdisciplinary education by offering a broad conceptualization of multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary training and their respective goals. Compared to
multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approaches,
transdisciplinary training is uniquely defined by its
intention to produce scholars who synthesize theoretical and methodologic perspectives spanning multiple disciplines and analytic levels. Nash distinguishes
among different forms of transdisciplinary training,
including single-mentor and team-mentoring apprenticeship models, and transdisciplinary training programs that are either broad or narrow in their analytic
scope (e.g., in which trainees learn to integrate the
perspectives of disciplines sharing the same or widely
different levels of analysis). Nash also outlines intrapersonal, interpersonal, and systems-level constraints
on—as well as facilitators of—transdisciplinary training
processes and outcomes. Finally, his analysis highlights
the importance of developing new methods and metrics for evaluating transdisciplinary training, and suggests new directions for research in this area.

Translating Team Science into Effective Clinical,
Community Health, and Policy Initiatives
Many large-scale team science initiatives are designed
to foster translations of scientific knowledge into improved clinical practices, community health outcomes,
and public policies (e.g., statewide taxation of cigarette
sales).13,63,64 However, the processes by which scientific
evidence from team science initiatives is incorporated
into clinical and community-based programs for health
improvement are not well understood.3 A useful starting point for the development of community-based
health initiatives is the transdisciplinary integration of
research findings on a particular topic drawn from
multiple fields and levels of analysis. For instance, Hiatt
and Breen’s article19 in this supplement offers a broadgauged transdisciplinary synthesis of research evidence
documenting the role of social factors in cancer etiology and the ways in which social, behavioral, psychological, and biologic variables as well as the healthcare
system jointly influence cancer incidence, survival, and
mortality rates. Hiatt and Breen’s analysis provides
conceptual grounding for developing more comprehensive strategies of cancer prevention and control
than have been available in the past.
Emmons and colleagues44 describe several cases in
which the scientific findings obtained through team
science initiatives at a university-based cancer center
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were translated into novel health-communication programs for disease prevention. Examples of these translational initiatives are the Harvard Colorectal Cancer
Risk Assessment and Communication Tool for Research and two public Internet sites, Your Cancer Risk
and Your Disease Risk.103 Emmons and colleagues note
that the features and functionality of these awardwinning websites were influenced by transdisciplinary
collaboration among scholars from several different
fields. They also describe other translational programs
designed collaboratively with non-university partners
through community-based participatory research strategies,104 including the Massachusetts Community Network for Cancer Education, Research, and Training.
Taken together, the supplement articles by Hiatt and
Breen19 and Emmons et al.44 highlight the value of
transdisciplinary research findings and conceptual
frameworks as a basis for developing novel and sustainable interventions for disease prevention.

Improving the Transfer of Knowledge Across
Team Science Initiatives and Evaluation Studies
Another type of translational challenge facing the
science-of-team-science field is to improve the transfer
of knowledge across multiple initiatives and evaluation
studies. Too often, the lessons learned over the course
of an initiative are not effectively communicated or
transferred to other research organizations and scientists who are contemplating or already engaged in
subsequent team science programs.6,9,75 Investments in
team science evaluation studies become more cost
effective and strategic to the extent that their conceptual integrations, empirical findings, methodologic
tools, and translational innovations are made available
to current or prospective members of other initiatives.
Hiatt and Breen’s analysis19 of social factors in disease
etiology exemplifies a conceptual tool that can be used
to guide future research, training, and translation
initiatives in the field of cancer control. Similarly,
Holmes and colleagues34 summarize several methodologic lessons learned through their multilevel analyses of
health disparities that can be of benefit to participants in
future transdisciplinary team science initiatives.
Similarly, new methods and metrics for gauging the
effectiveness of a particular team science program can
be used later to guide the design and evaluation of
other team initiatives once their reliability and validity
have been established. The development of new methods for evaluating team science is the focus of two
additional articles in this supplement. Hall and colleagues40 present initial findings from the 2006 NCI
TREC Year-One evaluation study in which a new online
survey protocol was developed to assess the levels of
institutional and interpersonal readiness for transdisciplinary collaboration during the early stages of a 5-year
initiative. Empirical links among several dimensions of
S86

collaborative readiness, including the availability of
shared research facilities; investigators’ history of working together on prior projects; and their endorsement
of unidisciplinary, multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary,
and transdisciplinary research perspectives, were examined in this study. Also, Mâsse and colleagues48 summarize new analyses of survey data obtained from tobacco
scientists participating in the first 5-year phase of the
NCI TTURC initiative. The survey measures and the
findings from this study— conducted as part of the NCI
evaluation of large initiatives (ELI)6,31— exemplify new
tools for assessing the impact of interpersonal processes
(e.g., collaborative experiences and behaviors) on scientific integration and productivity. These methods
and metrics are potentially applicable to the evaluations of other initiatives.
Finally, Kessel and Rosenfield38 provide a broad
review of earlier transdisciplinary research, training,
and translational programs as a basis for identifying
insights and guidelines that can be used to improve the
design and evaluation of future initiatives. Their findings are directly relevant to the goal of enhancing the
transfer of knowledge from prior team science initiatives and evaluation studies to subsequent ones.

Understanding the Systemic Contexts of Team
Science Initiatives and Their Evaluation
Another relatively neglected topic within the scienceof-team-science field is the influence of systemic factors
(e.g., institutional supports for interdisciplinary and
transdisciplinary collaboration, public and private investments in large-scale research initiatives, societal
concerns about the accountability of scientific research) on the design, functioning, and evaluation of
team science initiatives.29,42,89 These issues are addressed in several of the supplement articles. Leischow
and colleagues41 present an overview of systems theory
and the ways in which systems thinking can be used to
promote public health. A key principle of systems
theory is that socio-technical systems (e.g., team science
research initiatives) are embedded within broader systemic units (e.g., the Division of Cancer Control and
Population Sciences [DCCPS] of NCI) that administer
several large initiatives that in turn are nested within
larger entities and spheres of influence (e.g., the
NIH).105,106 An advantage of systems thinking is that it
reveals the interdependencies among systemic units
that operate at these different levels.
For instance, Croyle9 describes four large-scale transdisciplinary research and training initiatives (TTURC,
CECCR, CPHHD, TREC) that are directed by DCCPS
within NCI. Because DCCPS serves as the coordinating
unit for these programs, lessons learned from the
evaluations of the first initiatives to be implemented
(TTURC and CECCR) have been incorporated into the
design of subsequent programs (CPHHD and TREC).

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This transfer of knowledge among several large-scale
initiatives has the potential advantage of enhancing the
cost effectiveness of DCCPS’s and NCI’s investments in
transdisciplinary science and training programs.
At a broader institutional level, the article by Hays45
in this supplement (and the papers presented by Farber107 and Kington11 at the 2006 NCI conference on
the science of team science) describe the NIH Roadmap and OPASI initiatives, both of which are intended
to promote greater integration among the disciplines
represented within the various institutes that constitute
NIH. The design and mission of these initiatives have
been informed not only by health research and the
assessments of the scientific readiness45 of particular
fields for transdisciplinary integration, but also by societal concerns about public health and the accountability of science to society as a whole.9,14 Both the Roadmap and OPASI initiatives encompass several other
interrelated team science research and training programs,
coordinated by multiple institutes at NIH, whose goals are
closely aligned with the Roadmap initiative’s emphasis on
transdisciplinary scientific integration, training, and translation (e.g., the ambitious Clinical Translational Science
Awards initiative).13,29,74 The Roadmap and OPASI initiatives thus provide a strategic framework and mission for
organizing several subsidiary team-based programs.
Also within the context of the NIH, Mabry and
colleagues49 describe the strategic mission and crossdisciplinary initiatives supported by OBSSR. Systems
principles drawn from the fields of social ecology,
populomics, and informatics have been integrated with
the biomedical concerns of the Human Genome
Project and incorporated into the various programs
administered by OBSSR.16,108 –111 The broad biopsychosocial and ecologic vision reflected in OBSSR’s strategic
plan exemplifies an application of systems thinking to
broaden the conceptual scope, the positive health
impacts, and the cost effectiveness of large-scale transdisciplinary initiatives.
Federal funding agencies such as the NIH are but
one of several potential contributors to the development of transdisciplinary health science and the improvement of public health outcomes. Shen’s article43
in this supplement calls for the establishment of crosssectoral team science, and underscores the importance
of forging new collaborative relationships among private corporations and foundations, public research
agencies, and nongovernmental organizations for the
purpose of funding and sustaining transdisciplinary
health science and improving public health. This is
an exciting and potentially fruitful direction for the
science-of-team-science field.
The concluding article by Hall and colleagues39
recaps major themes reflected in the supplement and
identifies promising directions for future research organized around key programmatic challenges related
to the refinement of science-of-team-science terminolAugust 2008

ogy, conceptual frameworks, research methods, transdisciplinary training strategies, cross-sectoral partnerships, and sustainable funding mechanisms. For
instance, it will be important in future science-of-teamscience research to more clearly conceptualize and
measure the construct of readiness for collaboration.
This concept has been defined variously in terms of
individual and group research orientations,40,69 organizational and technologic resources that enhance capacity for collaboration,36,47,57 and the scientific readiness
of different fields for collaborative integration.41,45 Yet,
as Hall et al.39 observe, little is currently known about
how these different dimensions of collaborative readiness jointly influence the effectiveness of transdisciplinary initiatives.

Summary
The preceding discussion offers an overview of the
science-of-team-science field in terms of its major conceptual, methodologic, and translational concerns.
This field encompasses a wide array of research
projects and strategies aimed at better understanding, evaluating, and managing circumstances that
influence the effectiveness of large-scale team science initiatives. Common themes are beginning to
emerge in the literature, but several gaps in the
science-of-team-science knowledge base remain to be
addressed in future studies. The 2006 NCI conference on the science of team science and the present
supplement were organized for the purposes of identifying and analyzing several cutting-edge issues that
had received little or no attention in prior scienceof-team-science meetings and publications. It is
hoped that the articles included in this supplement
will help to establish the foundation for achieving
greater clarity and integration in science-of-teamscience research and for advancing the field’s scientific, training, and translational goals.
This article is based on a paper presented at the NCI
conference on The Science of Team Science: Assessing the
Value of Transdisciplinary Research on October 30 –31, 2006,
in Bethesda MD. The authors gratefully acknowledge support
for this manuscript provided by an IPA contract to Daniel
Stokols from the Office of the Director, DCCPS of the NCI;
and by Cancer Research Training Award fellowships to Kara
L. Hall and Brandie K. Taylor.
No financial disclosures were reported by the authors of
this paper.

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